Peter I Alexeyevich (Russian: Пётр I Алексеевич； From June 9, 1672 to February 8, 1725, he was the fifth Tsar of the Romanov dynasty in Russia (co ruled with Ivan V from April 1682 to 1696) and the first Emperor of the Russian Empire (reigned from November 2, 1721 to February 8, 1725). He was known as Peter I in history, and later referred to as Peter the Great by the Pope. He was one of the only two "Great Emperors" in Russian history.
Peter I ascended to the throne in 1682, took power in 1689, and in 1697, sent a delegation to Western Europe to learn advanced technology. He himself went on a mission under the pseudonym Peter Mikhailov, and studied shipbuilding and navigation techniques in places such as Saldan in the Netherlands, Amsterdam, and London in the United Kingdom. He also hired a large number of scientific and technological personnel to work in Russia. After returning to China, actively establishing factories, developing trade, culture, education, and scientific research, while reforming the military, establishing a Europeanized and formal army and navy, and subsequently launching wars. In 1721, Peter I was awarded the title of "All Russian Emperor" by the Russian Senate after his victory in the Northern War with Sweden. On February 8, 1725, Peter I passed away in St. Petersburg.
During the reign of Peter I, Westernization reforms were carried out in the fields of politics, economy, military, and technology. The development of modern Russia's politics, economy, culture, education, technology, and other aspects all originated from the era of Peter I, making Russia one of the major European powers.

Exile outside
On June 9, 1672 (May 30 in the Julian calendar), Peter Alexeyevich Romanov was born in Moscow. He was the only son of Tsar Alexei I of the Romanov dynasty and his second wife Natalia. Unlike the previous children of the Tsar who were either weak or disabled, Peter was very strong and lively, so rumors about Peter's blood relationship spread in the court, suspecting that his true biological father was someone else. [17] Peter's education was entirely based on the ancestral training model. Father Tsar Alexei showed great care to Peter and personally chose a nanny, nanny, and maid for him. [2]
In 1676, Alexei I passed away, and Peter's half brother Fedor Alexeyevich ascended to the throne, becoming known as Feodore III. [16-17]
In April 1682, Fedor III passed away. Peter's other brother Ivan was born dull, so Peter, with the support of his mother's Nareshkin family group, was crowned Tsar on April 27th, known as Peter I, at the age of 10. Peter's half sister, Princess Sophia, was unwilling to let the throne be held by the Nareshkin family. Therefore, under her secret planning, she served as the shooting army of the Tsar's Imperial Guard and besieged the Kremlin in May. Peter's uncle Nareshkin was killed. With the support of other nobles, Sophia once again proclaimed Ivan V, who was naturally slow, as the First Tsar and regent herself. Although Peter retained the title of Second Tsar, he was expelled from Moscow and moved with his mother to the village of Pleobulansky in the suburbs.

Peter, who was exiled, was unable to receive formal education systematically, but his strong thirst for knowledge to some extent compensated for this deficiency. He often interacts with nearby foreign immigrants and learns navigation knowledge and shipbuilding skills from them, which makes him full of longing for Western European culture. He is also enthusiastic about playing military games with friends near the palace. In the village surrounded by greenery, build earthen castles, conduct military exercises, and play offensive and defensive games. Later, he organized these companions, along with his attendants, into the Pleobulansky Corps and the Semyonovsky Corps; He invited military instructors and armed them with real guns and artillery, conducting strict military training and live fire exercises. These two corps later became his legitimate guards. [17]
Coup to seize power
In January 1689, Peter married the noble daughter Yevdokia Feodorovna Lopsina. Sophia, who longed to become the queen, felt the threat from Peter's side and prepared to instigate another shooting army rebellion and launch a palace coup. Peter learned of the conspiracy of the Sophia clique and left the village of Pleobulansky on the evening of August 7, 1689, fleeing to the Three Saints Monastery in Sergeyev. The shooting army also arrived near the Three Saints Monastery in Sergeyev, and Peter led his attendants to defeat the shooting army. At this time, many nobles and court ministers surrendered to Peter, and the conspiracy of the Sophia clique failed. She was imprisoned by Peter in a monastery. On October 6th, Peter set off to return to Moscow. After Peter came to power, he entrusted the affairs of the country to his mother, with the assistance of the noble Archbishop Joaquin and Boyalduma, while he was devoted to shipbuilding and navigation.

In 1690, Alexei Petrovich, the son of Peter I and his first wife Evdokia Feodorovna Lopsina, was born. He grew up under the influence of the hostile monastic forces and the Lopsina family, and the father son relationship was distant. [29]
In 1693, Peter I dispatched Izbrand Izyes to visit China and pay his respects to Emperor Kangxi. [16]
In January 1694, Peter's mother Natalia passed away, and Peter began to govern personally. [18]
In 1695, in order to open an outlet to the ocean, Peter I led 30000 Russian troops to attack the Azov city on the southern coast of the Black Sea, which was originally occupied by Russia and later occupied by the Ottoman Empire. But because Russia did not have a navy, it was unable to prevent the Ottoman Empire from continuously providing reinforcements from the sea to the city. Despite the brave fighting of the Russian army, it still ended in failure. Subsequently, Peter I learned his lesson and began building his own navy. He established a shipyard in Voronezh on the banks of the Don River and quickly established a small river fleet, which was the first fleet in Russian history. [17]
In 1696, Peter I's second expedition to Azov finally forced the Ottoman Empire to seek peace, and Russia took control of Azov, resolving the issue of Russian exports in the Sea of Azov. However, the strategically important Kerch Strait is still under Ottoman control, and the Black Sea is still in Ottoman hands. [18]
Learning reform
In March 1697, Russia sent a delegation of about 250 people to visit various European countries. It has two tasks: first, to further consolidate and expand the anti Türkiye alliance to defeat the Ottoman Empire; Another task is to hire foreign sailors, captains, shipbuilding and artillery experts, technicians, order cannons, and purchase cables and tools. Peter I personally went abroad with the mission under the pseudonym Peter Mikhailov, dressed as a corporal and traveling in humble clothes. Peter I had a sense of novelty towards all new things. He worked as a carpenter at a shipyard in Saldan, Netherlands, and later watched military factories and naval exercises in England, listened to parliamentary debates, and examined various aspects of Britain's political, economic, and cultural education.

In June 1698, Peter I visited Vienna. At this time, the Russian domestic shooting army launched another mutiny, demanding that Sophia be declared Tsar. After hearing the news, Peter hurried back to his home country and brutally suppressed the rebellion. He executed thousands of rebel officers and soldiers, and hung the bodies of more than 100 rebels in front of Sophia's window. [18-19]
When Peter I was in Western Europe, he clearly saw that expanding the anti Turkish alliance and resolving the issue of Black Sea ports were temporarily impossible. However, a new situation emerged in Northern Europe, where countries such as Saxony and Denmark had serious conflicts with Sweden in the Baltic Sea, which created favorable conditions for Peter to attack Sweden and compete for the Baltic Sea outlet. Therefore, he changed his strategic plan. On August 3, 1698, Peter I met with Elector of Saxony and King Augustus II of Poland in Lava, Ukraine. Both sides reached a verbal agreement to jointly oppose Sweden. Russia, Saxony, and Denmark formed a Northern Alliance against Sweden. [19]
In 1699, Peter ordered the establishment of a city hall in Moscow, the establishment of autonomous agencies in various regions, the abolition of the increasingly dissatisfied Lord Duma, the establishment of an office and a Privy Council composed of confidants, and two local administrative reforms, thus establishing an effective centralized state machinery.

Northern War
First Battle Defeat
In July 1700, Russia signed the Treaty of Constantinople with the Ottoman Empire for a period of 30 years. On August 8th, the messenger brought the news of the treaty to Moscow. Peter I learned that the treaty had been signed and immediately declared war on Sweden. He personally led a 30000 strong army to surround Narva Castle in Sweden, opening the prelude to the 21 year long Northern War. [18] [20]
In November, King Carl XII of Sweden first lightning defeated Russia's ally Denmark, and then led 8000 elite soldiers to Narva, launching a fierce attack on several times his own Russian army in the wind and snow. Although the Russian army had an absolute advantage in terms of quantity, due to inconsistent orders and chaotic organization, the entire line collapsed, almost completely annihilating the Russian army. In this battle, 15000 Russian soldiers died, while only 667 Swedish soldiers were killed. This war not only almost caused Russia to suffer a catastrophic disaster, but also shook the entire Europe. Peter fled back to Moscow in embarrassment. [21]
military streamline
After achieving a great victory, Karl XII directed his troops directly towards Poland, giving Russia a breathing opportunity. Peter I saw Russia's weakness and laxity, as well as the outdated and backward military, from his failure. He took advantage of the favorable situation where the Swedes were deeply involved in the Polish war to revitalize his military. He recruited new soldiers and trained them to use firearms correctly. We also send aristocratic children abroad to study foreign military technology and theories, and establish various military schools in China. He attaches great importance to the appointment of officers and promotes them based on their abilities. Peter also personally presided over and participated in the formulation of many regulations and a series of military regulations, making this army an unprecedentedly powerful force in Russian history at the fastest speed. In order to make up for the loss of weapons in the previous war, he ordered every three churches to hand over a bronze bell to cast cannons. One year later, Russia produced 300 cannons.

Launch a counterattack
In 1702, Peter I took advantage of the empty defense along the Baltic Sea coast of Poland, where the main force of the Swedish army was expediting, and led a large army straight to the mouth of the Neva River. He successively captured the Swiss strongholds of Nottyburg and Ningshanzburg. The entire Neva River basin fell into the hands of the Russian army, and Russia's dream of opening up a sea mouth in the Baltic Sea became a reality. [21]
In May 1703, the Russian army began building fortresses in Petersburg and Kronstadt at the mouth of the Neva River. [22]
In early 1708, King Carl XII of Sweden led his troops to launch a massive attack on Russia. Peter I avoided a decisive battle and instead commanded the Russian army to implement a strategic retreat. At the same time, he defended the walls and cleared the fields, constantly harassing, depleting, and exhausting the Swedish army with small troops. In the autumn, Karl XII made another mistake: in order to win Ukraine over him, he sent troops south, but left the support troops only 100 kilometers away to the Russian army alone. Peter seized the opportunity and personally led the Russian army to launch an attack, not only annihilating more than 9000 enemy soldiers, but also seizing almost all of the Swedish artillery and supplies. [23]
Due to the supply being cut off, the Swedish army suffered from a severe shortage of ammunition, especially with almost no remaining artillery shells available. However, Karl XII refused the retreat proposal from his subordinates and instead besieged the fortress of Poltava on the banks of the Woskala River in Ukraine. [23]
Peter I had already organized a large army to defend the fortress and quickly arrived to establish an anti encirclement front, luring the Swedish army into the trap between the fortress and the Russian army. On the eve of the decisive battle, during an investigation, Karl XII was shot in the foot and unable to personally command the army. [23]
The Battle of Poltava
At 2am on June 28, 1709, Russia and Sweden engaged in a fierce battle in Poltava. Sweden has about 20000 troops participating in the war, while the Russian military has about twice the strength of the former, with over a hundred artillery pieces. When resisting the fierce attack of the Swedish army, Peter personally took command on the front line and finally stabilized the situation. Subsequently, Russian infantry began to counterattack, while cavalry surrounded both wings of the Swedish army. At noon, the Swedish army began to retreat and then turned into a desperate retreat. The rest of the Swedish army was chased by the Russian army in the retreat and forced to surrender. Only Karl XII and more than 1000 people fled to Türkiye. In this battle, the Swedish army was killed by more than 9000 people, captured by more than 18000 people, lost 32 artillery pieces and all supplies, while the Russian army killed 1345 people and injured 3290 people. This war not only determined the outcome of the prolonged Northern War, but also completely ended Sweden's history as a strong country.

Attack Finland
In the summer of 1711, Peter I led his army to march south towards the Ottoman Empire, but ended up surrounded by Ottoman and Crimean Khanate armies on the banks of the Prut River. Due to running out of ammunition and food, they were forced to beg for peace. On July 12th, the two sides signed the Treaty of Prut, which stipulated that Russia would return Azov and its surrounding areas to the Ottoman Empire, demolish fortresses on the Tagalog and Dnieper rivers, and allow Karl XII to safely return home through Russia. [30]
After the signing of the Treaty of Prussia, the Russian army focused its main attack on Finland, attempting to gradually advance the battlefield to mainland Sweden. During the period of 1712-1714, the Russian army successively occupied Helsinki (now Helsinki), Yabo, Waza, and Neuschlott Fort, as well as important strongholds in southern Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, capturing important bases for attacking Sweden. The Swedish army was forced to withdraw from Finland. [30]
In 1712, Saint Petersburg was built. Peter I ordered the capital to be relocated from Moscow to St. Petersburg, the court, Senate, government agencies, and foreign envoys to Russia to work in St. Petersburg, and ordered 385 nobles to settle in St. Petersburg as the first batch of immigrants. [21]
Russia Switzerland talks
In August 1714, Peter I personally led the Russian fleet to defeat the Swedish Ellenhild Fleet in the Battle of Cape Hanko, achieving his first victory since the establishment of the navy. Peter was promoted to Rear Admiral. [3] In the same year, Colonel Buhorets was dispatched to lead an expedition to invade the northwestern Junggar region of China

In 1715, the relationship between Crown Prince Alexei Petrovich and Peter I became even more distant, and the conflict between father and son became increasingly acute. A group of people hostile to reform gathered around Alexei. Peter I wrote a letter to the Crown Prince, asking him to give an unequivocal answer: "Either change your course and truly become a qualified heir, or go and become a monk.". In this plan that concerns his future, Alexei chose the latter. He replied by letter agreeing to shave his hair and become a monk, because someone advised him to hide his pride and tell him that "a monk's hat is not a nail nailed to his head.". [29]
In 1716, Peter I visited Western Europe. In November, Alexei took the opportunity to escape to Austria under the pseudonym, attempting to request the protection of Austrian Emperor Charles VI. The Russian government sent someone to inquire about Alexei's whereabouts. [29]
In May 1717, Peter I led Beau Kuragin Pi, Shafirov Pi, Tolstoy, and others to Paris to hold talks with the French government. On July 1st, Peter I appointed Tolstoy and Rumensev to Vienna to negotiate with the Austrian Emperor over the Alexei Incident. In August, Russia, France, and Prussia signed the Amsterdam Treaty, which stipulated that France would no longer provide military and other material assistance to Sweden. This treaty resulted in Sweden losing its ally France. The military defeat and external isolation forced Sweden to agree to negotiations with Russia. In the same year, Peter I dispatched an expedition to invade the Khiva Khanate, but it was unsuccessful. [24] [33]
In January 1718, Alexei returned to the old capital Moscow with Tolstoy. Subsequently, the interrogation of Alexei's escape began. In March, Alexei was taken to Petersburg to continue the trial of the case. Peter I ordered the formation of a Supreme Special Court of 127 people to hear Alexei. In May, Russia and Switzerland began peace talks in the Aran Islands and drafted a draft peace treaty. On June 24th, Alexei was sentenced to death. On June 26th, Alexei died in his cell. On November 30th, Karl XII was killed in the siege of Frederick Ham in Norway, and his sister Ulrika Eleanora succeeded him to the throne. The new queen, with the support of Britain, refused to negotiate and the negotiations between Russia and Switzerland were interrupted. [30]
Russia's continuous expansion in the Baltic Sea has caused great anxiety in Britain. It hopes that the Baltic countries will maintain a balance of power and maintain its position as the highest arbitrator in the Baltic coastal countries. In August 1719 and February 1720, Britain and Sweden signed treaties stipulating that Britain would provide economic and military assistance to Sweden to help it regain territories occupied by Russia.

The war is over
However, due to commercial interests, Britain did not take resolute and decisive measures to prevent Russia's expansion in the Baltic Sea, nor did it take any practical and effective military action to help Sweden. Russia saw that Britain was just bluffing, so they took every inch and pressed forward step by step. In July 1720, 5000 Russian troops landed at Greenham, where a British fleet was stationed, destroying coastal facilities in Sweden. On July 27th, the Russian fleet achieved another major victory on the island of Krongham. Captured 4 Swedish three masted cruisers, 104 cannons, and captured 407 officers and soldiers. At the same time, Russia launched a diplomatic offensive and publicly invited Duke Holstein, the strongest contender for the Swedish throne, to visit Petersburg, promising to marry Peter I's sister to him, thereby influencing Sweden's policy towards Russia. The Swedish government deeply feels that continuing to cooperate with Britain can only delay the war and lose territory. And Russia's two allies, Denmark and Poland, signed peace treaties with Sweden and withdrew from the war. This international situation, coupled with years of war that have exhausted both Russia and Switzerland, has led to the resumption of several interrupted negotiations between the two countries. In the same year, Peter I dispatched Izmaylov to visit China and pay his respects to Emperor Kangxi. [24]
From April to August 1721, Russia and Switzerland held peace talks in the city of Nistad, Finland. At the beginning of the peace talks, Russia exerted military pressure on Sweden to force it to surrender and meet its territorial demands. In the summer of that year, 5000 Russian troops landed along the coast of Sweden, destroying 13 factories, seizing 40 small boats and a large amount of military supplies, creating a situation that was approaching Stockholm. On August 30th (some say September 10th [28]), Russia and Sweden signed the Treaty of Nistadt in Finland. Russia seized the land along the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Riga from Sweden and obtained the Baltic Sea estuary. On October 22, the Russian Senate honored Peter I as the emperor and awarded him the titles of "Great Emperor of All Russia" and "Father of the Motherland" in recognition of his so-called "remarkable military achievements" in his expansion abroad. Russia has officially changed its name to the "Russian Empire".

Expanding eastward
In 1722, due to the treason of Crown Prince Alexei, Peter I promulgated the Law of Succession on February 25, abolishing the traditional principle of succession to the throne and allowing the reigning emperor to choose the heir to the throne based on his own considerations, while also changing the designated heir to the throne. In the same year, Peter I dispatched Onkovsky to the northwest of China's Junggar region, and Cangtu bribed the great Khan of Junggar, Cewang Alabtan. [24]
During the Northern War, Peter I was extremely attentive to Persia. On May 13, 1722, Peter I led his army from Moscow. Russia has deployed over 50000 troops along the coast of the Caspian Sea, as well as a Caspian Sea sub fleet consisting of over 80 ships. In August, the Russian army occupied Jerbent, and Peter I returned to Russia from there. The Russian army successively captured the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea, including Lesht in the Girian province. [32]
In July 1723, the Russian army occupied Baku. On September 12th, Persia and Russia signed the Treaty of the Petersburg Alliance, in which Persia transferred the entire western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea to Russia; Jerbent and Baku were also ceded to Russia; Russia offered to help Persia drive out the Afghans and quell all rebellions as a "trade off" for occupying these territories. The Ottoman Empire protested against this and, with the support of countries such as Britain and France, threatened Russia with war. In the same year, in southern Siberia, Peter I sent troops to occupy all the land in the upper reaches of the Ertix River and sent exploration teams all the way east to the Bering Strait. At this point, Russia has become a vast empire spanning across Europe and Asia. [23]
On May 7, 1724, Peter I crowned his wife. On June 12th, Russia and the Ottomans signed a treaty in Constantinople, which stipulated that the southwestern regions of the Caucasus, such as Yerevan, Tabriz, and Kazvinsk, as well as Shemaha, were under Ottoman jurisdiction; Russia still occupies the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea as stipulated in the Petersburg Treaty. Shortly thereafter, due to someone leaking information from the court, Peter learned that his wife was behaving improperly and had an ambiguous relationship with the senior court attendant William Mons. Moreover, Mons has been charged with corruption and theft of national property. These questions angered Peter. On November 14th, William Mons was beheaded and executed. Subsequently, Peter issued an edict to the ministers, ordering them not to carry out any instructions or suggestions from the queen in the future. He further closed down the institution that governed the property for his disloyal wife.

The Death of Peter
In his later years, Peter suffered from uremia, but he remained a workaholic and did not care much about his health. On an autumn day in 1724, Peter I saw a ship stranded on a sandbar in the Gulf of Finland. Several soldiers were in danger of drowning, and his unique personality made him jump into icy water to save them (Saint Petersburg is located at 60 degrees north latitude). Peter suffered from a cold wind and developed a high fever, which worsened in winter. [66-67]
Although he had improved for a while, due to Peter's continuous work, starting from January 1725, his condition rapidly deteriorated, and the torment of illness often made him feel unbearable. At the same time, his feet also developed abscesses and began to ulcerate. On February 8, 1725 (Julian calendar January 28), Peter I passed away in St. Petersburg at the age of 52 due to a urinary tract infection caused by surgery for urethral stones. His dying words were: "I hope God forgives my many sins, because I am doing good for the country and the people."

politics
Administrative system reform
The administrative management system inherited from the 17th century, from the central to the local level, reflects the weak links of state organs. As early as January 1699, Peter I issued a decree on municipal reform, establishing a city hall in Moscow and setting up local autonomous bureaus in other provincial cities to manage the business and residents of the city. [62]
From 1708-1710, Russia carried out local administrative reforms. Its essence lies in the establishment of intermediate administrative units - provinces and prefectures - between counties and government departments that were previously directly under the central government. The country is divided into eight provinces, namely: Moscow Province, St. Petersburg Province, Kiev Province, Smolensk Province, Irkutsk Province, Kazan Province, Azov Province, and Siberia Province. [14] A provincial governor is established to oversee the military, as well as all administrative and judicial powers within the province. Under the Governor General, there are four assistants, each managing designated administrative affairs. The security commander is in charge of the military, the finance committee member and the grain director are responsible for collecting money and grain, and there is also one person in charge of the judiciary. The governor is appointed by the Tsar. The establishment of provincial government agencies has strengthened local political power. In 1719, with the reform of the central administrative organs, local administrative organs underwent another reform. The government has become the main unit of local administrative organs and replaced provinces, with approximately fifty of them. The division of provinces is still preserved, but the power of the governor only retains the management of provincial cities and the command of troops stationed within the province. The remaining administrative affairs are directly communicated with the central departments or the Senate by the governor. [62]

In 1711, Peter I ordered the establishment of the Senate, consisting of nine trusted ministers appointed by him. When the Tsar is not in the capital, the Senate handles state affairs and becomes a permanent new highest government institution. The Senate is only responsible to the Tsar, assigning tasks to various departments and local authorities, and reviewing laws under the Tsar's orders. Its members are appointed by the Tsar, not entirely from prestigious families, but from loyal and meritorious individuals towards the Tsar. The Senate completely replaced the Lord Duma. Peter I only issued edicts in his own name thereafter. The establishment of the Senate is of great significance in consolidating the autocratic system and strengthening the Tsar's unlimited power. [62]
Establish a supervisory authority
In Peter I's administrative reforms, the establishment of supervisory agencies played an important role. In 1711, Peter I established a network of administrative supervisors in central and local institutions, under the jurisdiction of the Senate, whose task was to "secretly supervise all people, even the highest officials.". They report to the Senate, and for particularly important situations, they report to the Tsar himself. For those who engage in embezzlement and fraud, regardless of their position, administrative supervisors must report and report to the Senate. Any defendant shall be fined, half of the fine shall be paid to the official, and half of the reward shall be given to the administrative supervisor. Administrative supervisors do not receive salaries and rely solely on this half of the fine to make a living. Therefore, administrative supervisors often abuse their powers and engage in personal gain and fraud. In 1722, Peter I, in order to improve the supervision of the activities of state organs, established prosecutors in departments and offices, under the jurisdiction of the Attorney General of the Senate, which became the "ears and eyes of the emperor.". Afterwards, the administrative supervision system was replaced. Russia has established an unprecedented "inspection system", with spies spread throughout the country. The establishment of the Senate and the establishment of prosecutors marked the beginning of central institutional reform. [62]
Peter I extensively utilized the experience of Western countries during his reforms. In 1712, the Tsar ordered the Senate to organize manpower to translate the "Foreign Code" and instructed the recruitment of "scholars and legal experts" from abroad to guide the work of various departments. Peter also needs diplomatic personnel stationed in Denmark to gather information on the structure of the Danish central government and study the experience of Sweden, which is a belligerent country. However, when Peter I applied the experience of Western countries, he did not blindly imitate their policies and organizations, but rather "considered the characteristics of his own country's development" and adapted to the situation of Russia itself.

In 1718-1721, Peter I instructed the establishment of a new central administrative agency, the Ministry, to replace the old government office. Initially, nine departments were established, responsible for foreign affairs, army, navy, finance, taxation, administrative support, judiciary, commerce, mining, etc., but soon increased to twelve, replacing the approximately 50 yamen offices with overlapping institutions and unclear responsibilities. [13] Each department is subordinate to the Senate, and its authority extends throughout various parts of the empire, serving as a link between the Senate and provincial administrative agencies. The advantage of a department over a government department is that there is a clear division of labor in terms of job functions between each department. Its affairs need to be discussed and shared by colleagues to prevent individuals from acting arbitrarily. [62]
The armed police agency established in the late 17th century, the Pleobrazinski Political Office (equivalent to the Supreme Court [61]), holds a special position in the central government. It conducts political investigations and its courts hear all opposition to the existing order. Those who participate in the uprising and those who speak vulgar language will be held accountable by it. The term "vulgar language" here refers to comments, criticisms of reforms, the moral behavior of the Tsar, and the Tsar's family life. In addition, Peter I, like other despotic monarchs, was convinced that the police were "the backbone of citizens, the pillar of all good order, human safety, and comfort.". He established police stations in Petersburg and Moscow, and delegated the responsibilities of the police to local government agencies at the local level. [62]
Formulating regulations and legislation
Establishing a new institution is only half the story. Peter I also participated in the formulation of regulations and legislation. In the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire, there are five volumes of legal documents from the Peter era, including 3314 instructions, detailed rules, and regulations. The manuscripts of many edicts drafted by Peter I himself, or supplemented or modified by him, have been preserved. Each department has a charter that outlines its jurisdiction and related rights and obligations. The General Rules of Procedure, which are commonly followed by various departments, hold an important position. It was prepared with the participation of Peter I and has undergone twelve revisions, six of which were decided and modified by Peter. It stipulates the rights and obligations of public officials in government agencies, from the minister down to the miscellaneous staff. In 1722, the instructions regarding the position of Attorney General were also revised six times with the participation of Peter I before being completed.

Breaking down restrictions on social status and qualifications
Along with the strengthening of centralization of state organs, they are also becoming increasingly bureaucratic. A new class has gradually formed in society - bureaucrats. Due to the increase in government agencies and the complexity of their functions, the number of officials has significantly increased. In the 17th century, the political department was headed by a clerk, while the local government was headed by the governor and his colleagues. In the 18th century, the department was headed by a minister, and the local government was headed by the governor and prefect. Peter I expanded the staff of the "office" led by a secretary. The determination of official positions among government officials and the promotion based on their service quality all rely on personal achievements and experience. Lower level officials may be promoted to higher positions based on their own achievements, and nobles should also gradually advance according to their official positions starting from their positions. This formed the bureaucratic class. The composition of bureaucrats is primarily composed of nobles, but it does not exclude members of other social classes from joining. [62]
In the second half of the 17th century, when appointing military officers, the government no longer only considered their social status, but also their achievements, knowledge, and combat experience. Peter I firmly adhered to the principle of considering merit and talent when appointing officers. In order to demonstrate the nobility through personal examples, Peter himself served as an officer, initially as a gunner, and later promoted to a new officer rank. During the Northern War, Peter promoted non privileged individuals to officers through his military achievements. Peter also stipulated that the sons of nobles and officers were not allowed to become any officers without serving in the Imperial Guard. Although Peter I struggled with the privileged ranks of nobles, he sometimes had to acknowledge the hierarchical relationships between nobles, and in appointing officers, he placed the "nobles" in a favorable position. [62]
A despotic monarchy is primarily for the benefit of the nobility. In 1714, Peter I issued the doctrine of "one son inheritance" to avoid dispersing the land of the nobility and consolidate their land ownership. The principle of improving based on achievements has gradually expanded its scope. In 1720, Peter proposed in a decree the harm of the seniority service system to the country. In 1722, Peter I issued the "Official Ranking Table", which abolished the old rule of promotion based on family background and changed it to the principle of "selecting officials based on merit". The "Official Rank Table" divides official positions into three parallel series: civil affairs, military, and palace. Each series is divided into fourteen levels, ranging from the lowest level of poor registrar (civil affairs), flag bearer (military), servant (palace) to the highest position of Imperial Prime Minister, Army Marshal, and Attendant. There is also a hierarchy difference, and military and political officials are recruited according to their abilities. As long as they are promoted to the top eight levels (equivalent to a major in the army), regardless of their background, they can be granted the title of noble family. In this way, a new ruling group was formed around Peter I. Peter I imitated Europe, revoked the old title of privileged nobles, and bestowed dozens of counts and barons on his confidants. When he ascended the throne, there were only over 2000 noble families in the country, and later the number of nobles quickly increased to 9000.

economic
tax revenue
Before the reform, the Russian government issued many orders regarding donations and taxes, combining direct and indirect taxes, resulting in excessive and miscellaneous taxes. At that time, taxation was based on farmers as the unit of taxation, and landlords combined several families with kinship relationships to evade taxation. Peter I decided to adopt a "head tax" based on male population, and as a result, population registration began in 1718. According to the first census (1722), it can be determined that the population of Russia is close to 14 million (male and female). In 1724, the first head tax was levied, and the head tax for urban residents was calculated at a rate of 1 ruble and 20 kobi per man, while the head tax for landlords and farmers was levied at a rate of 74 kobi per person, and an additional 40 kobi was imposed on national farmers. In 1701, Russia's national income was only 2.5 million rubles, but in 1725 it exceeded 9 million rubles. [29]
industry
Peter I's economic policies have achieved great success in the development of industry and trade. The "handicraft workshop" period in Russian industrial history began during the reign of Peter I.

In order to supply the military and strengthen national defense, Peter I vigorously supported Russia's handicraft factories. By the end of Peter I's reign, Russia had over 200 large industrial enterprises, among which the gold industry had the greatest achievements. In the late 17th century, Russia needed to import iron from Sweden to make weapons, and by 1725, Russia had exported metal to foreign countries. In 1726, it exported over 55000 pieces of iron. Russia has built many military factories, metallurgical factories, textile factories, etc. in various places, without the need to import metals and weapons, and has sewn military uniforms using its own produced woolen fabrics. The development of Russia's metallurgical industry and other industries is inseparable from the introduction of Western European technology and equipment, the utilization of foreign technician experience, and the absorption of investment from foreign business owners. When Peter first traveled to Western Europe, he hired many foreigners to work in various sectors of industry. Later, according to the regulations of the Ministry of Handicrafts in the factory, foreign craftsmen could be hired to ensure their freedom of departure, provide them with housing and loans, and they could be exempt from taxes and military service. Positive measures were taken to train Russian craftsmen by taking exams for apprentices. [29]
The Peter government rewards the activities of handicraft workshop owners by implementing tax exemption, granting them allowances, patents, and various other privileges. The factory owner can use the country's forests and mines without being arbitrarily manipulated by local governments. Some handicraft factory owners have obtained patents for the production and sale of certain goods. For example, in 1717, Apraxin's company obtained a patent for the production of silk fabrics. The Peter government allocated funds from the national treasury to support the handicraft industry in the workshops. Due to a shortage of hired workers, in order to ensure the supply of industrial labor, an edict was issued in January 1721 allowing "merchants" to "freely purchase villages" for their existing factories, leading to the emergence of handicraft factories using state-owned land and serfs. In this type of handicraft workshop, workers form a whole with the enterprise and are "fixed" to the enterprise rather than attached to the factory owner. The factory owner cannot only sell the enterprise and leave people behind, nor can they ask these people to work outside the enterprise.

trade
Peter I implemented a mercantilist policy in foreign trade. He took measures to encourage foreign trade and allowed Russian merchants to organize trading companies to establish business relations with foreign countries. In 1715, Russian consulates were established in Amsterdam, London, Lisbon, and other places to provide commercial convenience. Enter into commercial agreements with many countries. Viborg, Narva, Revere, Riga and other Baltic seaports have all become ports for Russian trade. In order to develop trade in the capital city of Petersburg, artisans and merchants were forced to migrate here, and wealthy merchants from Arkhangelsk were also relocated here. In 1716, the order stipulated that 1/6 of the "exported" products nationwide must be exported from the port of Petersburg. In 1720, the order was issued to completely exempt the export of goods through the port of Petersburg, and the import tax was reduced from 5% to 3%. Provide "privilege certificates" to foreigners who trade with Russia, ensuring that they have various privileges. Send merchant children to the Netherlands and Italy with official fees to inquire about the secrets of the goods. In order to prevent a large influx of foreign goods, high tariffs were imposed on imported goods. In Peter's later years, Russia imported approximately 2.1 million rubles of goods annually and exported 4.2 million rubles, increasing the surplus in foreign trade and accumulating funds for the country. [29]
military affairs
In the 15th and 18th centuries, the mercenary system was prevalent in Western European countries. Mercenaries were not yet a true national armed force and often had private armed characteristics. They not only had weak combat effectiveness but were also prone to defection during battles. Peter I, in response to the drawbacks of the mercenary system, decided to establish a regular army entirely organized and controlled by the state. [56]
Compulsory conscription system
In the spring of 1699, Peter I began conscripting a regular army. In addition to unifying the distribution of weapons, equipment, and food, he also paid 11 rubles a year to each soldier. At that time, a large number of slaves enlisted to break free from serfdom status. After the start of the Northern War, the army was depleted, and Peter I explicitly stipulated for the first time in a government decree in 1705 that military service personnel should be recruited from the tax paying class (farmers and citizens). In 1710, this unified compulsory conscription system was officially established, ultimately abandoning the mercenary system. The new conscription system stipulates that all taxpayers under the age of 32 must serve in the military, with an average of one soldier per 25 households, and the military service period is for life. From 1699 to 1725, Peter I conscripted 53 times, bringing the total number of conscripts to 284187.

Adapt the old army
Before Peter I, the Russian army, whether it was a noble militia, a shooting army, or a newly formed team, was not yet a true standing army. Peter I, in order to adapt to the needs of war, fought and reorganized the army. The newly formed team was the basis for forming a new regular army, while the shooting army was mainly reorganized into local security forces. The cavalry unit used to be entirely composed of nobles, but since 1708 it has also been recruited from the tax paying class. The reorganization of the regular army officially ended in 1709. The regular army consists of four branches: infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineering, with infantry replacing cavalry as the main branch. By 1725, the regular army had a total of 105 infantry regiments and 37 dragon cavalry regiments. There are a total of 131400 infantry soldiers, 38406 cavalry soldiers, totaling approximately 170000 people. In addition, there are 198500 non combatants. In addition to the regular army, Russia also has tens of thousands of non regular Cossack troops. Through adaptation, Peter I established the largest military force in Europe, with the military powers of France and Austria each having 150000 troops, while Prussia had only over 80000. [56]
In terms of military organization, Peter I designated the highest tactical unit as a division, which consisted of brigades, regiments, battalions, companies, and platoons. Infantry divisions are usually composed of three brigades, with 2-3 infantry or cavalry regiments forming a brigade. The regiment is a basic tactical unit, and a regiment includes 2-3 battalions. Each regiment has 40 colonel level officers, 80 sergeants, 1120 combat personnel, and 247 non combat personnel, totaling approximately 1480 people. The number of cavalry regiments is slightly lower, about 1300 people. The artillery regiment has a smaller number of personnel, with a total of 8 companies. In addition, there is an engineering team and a pontoon bridge team each. However, during the reign of Peter I, the military organization was not completely unified and fixed, and there were still many chaotic phenomena, and the strength of the regiment as the basic tactical unit was also very weak. [56]
Establish a unified central military leadership agency
Until the 17th century, there was no unified central military leadership in Russia, and the military's affiliation was both scattered and chaotic. Almost all departments of the national machinery had military affiliations, all of which participated to varying degrees in leading the military. With the establishment of the regular army, Peter I gradually centralized and unified the leadership of the army. In 1719, two central military leadership organs were established, the Army Academy and the Navy Academy, respectively, to oversee the Army and Navy. Peter I also established a military affairs director in the military, responsible for reconnaissance, terrain, roads, and deployment, which was the predecessor of the Russian General Staff.

Develop unified rules and regulations
The establishment of a regular army requires a fundamental reform of the previous regulations and rules. In 1700, the "Company Ceremony" was promulgated, which is a regulation on the internal management of the military. It requires officers at all levels to strictly discipline themselves, and lower level officers should unconditionally obey higher-level officers, rather than whether they hold noble status. In the same year, the "Military Code of Conduct" was also promulgated, requiring soldiers to serve wholeheartedly and stipulating many mental and physical punishments for soldiers. In 1714, Peter I instructed Mykhikov to draft the "marching regulations", which stipulated the tactics, marching organization, and guarding of cavalry. The Military Regulations formulated in 1716 were a relatively comprehensive regulation that stipulated the organization, management, field operations, service, training, and other aspects of the military. They were further supplemented and modified in 1722. In 1720, the Naval Charter was specifically formulated for the Navy. [56]
Reform the military officer system
In the past, there was no clear regulation on the source of Russian military officers. When gathering for expeditions, aristocratic groups designated nobles to serve, senior officers were appointed by the Boyar nobles, lower level officers of the shooting army were appointed by small and medium-sized nobles, and many officers in the newly formed team were employed foreigners. In 1705, Peter I explicitly stipulated that military officers should be held by individuals of noble descent (with no less than two-thirds of nobles serving in the military and the remaining one-third serving as civil servants). Individuals from other social classes could only be promoted to military officers if they had outstanding talents and made military achievements, and those who obtained the rank of lieutenant colonel could become nobles. Peter I also promoted some talented individuals from non aristocratic backgrounds, such as the first army dean, Mykhikov, who was the son of a court horse keeper. In order to improve the quality of military officers, Peter I instructed his noble children to serve in the team from the age of 15, starting with soldiers and allowing these future officers to serve as soldiers or sergeants for a few years before being promoted to military positions. Many noble children began to join the two guard corps of Pleobrazinsky and Semyonovsky, which can be said to be the earliest schools for training infantry and cavalry officers. Peter I also founded military schools to train specialized officers. He established military schools such as the Moscow Naval School (1701), the Petersburg Artillery School (1714), the Moscow Engineering School (1712), the Petersburg Naval Academy (formerly the Moscow Naval School, relocated to Petersburg and renamed in 1715), and the Petersburg Engineering School (1719). In addition, Peter I also sent aristocratic children to study military affairs in various Western European countries and served as military officers upon returning home. [56]
Peter I's military rank system began in 1699, with the first appointment of three generals, each overseeing 9-11 regiments. In 1722, the military rank system was officially promulgated, consisting of 14 levels, emphasizing the appointment of officers based on military merit.

Improve the military's weapons and equipment
Infantry were equipped with tunnel guns, which were invented in France and were commonly used as hunting rifles in Western Europe. These guns had a short range of only 300 steps and could fire 1-2 rounds per minute, but their main advantage was their light weight and ease of use. It was not until the later years of Peter I that the entire army was fully equipped. In addition, soldiers also added bayonets and hand grenades, and cavalry were equipped with large swords and short rifles. The development of artillery was relatively slow. By 1723, the artillery had a total of 120 siege guns, 40 mortar guns, and 21 field guns, some of which were designed by Peter I. [56]
Peter I also unified military uniforms, with soldiers wearing thick woolen short jackets, infantry in green, cavalry in blue, wearing felt hats on their heads, and raincoats and shoes. [56]
Reform tactical thinking
At that time, Western European armies prevailing linear tactics, with troops arranged in a pattern of flower boards: the center consisted of two or three rows of infantry, and the wings consisted of cavalry. The troops were evenly distributed, and the dominant forces were not concentrated in the main attack direction. The maneuverability during combat was poor, and the combat usually had the nature of firepower competition. Although Peter I also used this horizontal formation tactic, he placed greater emphasis on a simple formation for easy maneuverability and the ability to concentrate more troops in the main attacking direction. Peter I valued regulations, but he emphasized that the military should take initiative and not blindly copy them. He advocates the use of bayonets in decisive battles to end the battle with a blade. The names of each team are named after the main cities in the areas where soldiers were recruited, in order to play the role of a "fellow townspeople association". Peter I demanded that cavalry be able to independently carry out war missions and first use horse drawn artillery, which was the earliest in European countries. [56]
At the same time as military reform, Peter I devoted great energy to creating the navy, using a quarter of the national treasury to build fleets. According to the needs of the Northern War, Peter I gradually established a fleet of sailboats and oars in the Baltic Sea. These ships were dual-use and were not affected by wind. Later, in battles in the rocky islands on the south and southwest coasts of Finland, the fleet was agile and defeated the bulky and inconvenient Swedish ships. By 1725, the Russian Baltic Fleet had developed to have 35 large warships, 10 cruisers, 200 large sailboats, and 28000 sailors, as well as 25 shipyards of various sizes and naval bases such as Petersburg and Levi, becoming a naval power on the east coast of the Baltic Sea. It was known as the "father of Russia's navy.".