Mohammed II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى , Turkish: Fatih Sultan Mehmet, English: Muhammad II; From March 30, 1432 to May 3, 1481, he was the seventh Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (reigned from August 1444 to May 1446, February 18, 1451 to May 3, 1481). His full name was Mohammad bin Murad bin Mohammad bin Bayezid and he was nicknamed "Conqueror" (meaning Conqueror). The fourth son of Sultan Murad II.
Mohammed II served as the Governor General of Manisa in his early years. He first became the Sultan from 1444 to 1446 and ascended the throne again in 1451. In 1453, he led his army to capture Constantinople and destroy the Byzantine Empire. He regarded himself as the successor of the Byzantine Empire and actively expanded outward. In the west, Mohammed II conquered Balkan countries such as Serbia and Albania; Conquered various countries in Asia Minor to the east, defeated the Aries dynasty, and expanded the eastern border to the Euphrates River. In 1478, he used force to coerce the Crimean Khanate on the north coast of the Black Sea into submission. In the Indochinese War, they also seized most of the islands in the Aegean Sea. During his reign, he also compiled codes of law, rewarded literature and art, and built buildings. In the late period of his reign, Muhammad II was known as the "master of two lands and two seas". [4] Through a series of battles, a massive Ottoman Empire gradually emerged. In 1481, Mohammed II suddenly passed away on the eve of his expedition at the age of 49.
Mohammed II implemented a series of policies in politics, economy, religion, and culture, which maintained the stability of the Ottoman Empire and laid a solid foundation for the later Suleiman the Great to establish a great empire spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa. Therefore, many historians believe that he was the true creator of the Ottoman Empire.

Early experiences
Mohammed II was born on March 30, 1432, in the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Edirne. His full name was Mohammad bin Mohammad bin Bayezid, and he was the fourth son of the sixth Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mohammad II (reigned 1403-14511421-1444 and 1446-1451). His mother was a female slave, H ü m â H â t û n. [4] [9-10]
Muhammad received strict Islamic, cultural, and military education during his childhood. Due to the frailty and illness of his two older brothers, Muhammad was heavily trained by Murad II. Murad hired some well-known domestic scholars as his teachers. He also studied with his aristocratic children, as well as the sons of clever prisoners of war. The obvious purpose of doing this is to enable his son to make various talented friends from a young age, laying the foundation for future governance. When Muhammad was slightly older, according to the tradition of the Ottoman Empire, Murad equipped him with two "lalas" (assistants and guards) to assist him and sent him to Manisa in Asia Minor as governor to accumulate experience in governing the country.

Twice ascended to the throne
In August 1444, Murad II became tired of political affairs and decided to abdicate to Mohammad, who was only 12 years old. [4]
Shortly after Muhammad ascended the throne, he experienced a severe internal and external political crisis. King W ł adys ł aw III of Hungary used Muhammad's youth to tear up the Treaty of Segt signed in June 1444 in Hungary. With the support of Pope Eugene IV, the Byzantine Empire, and the Republic of Venice, he organized a crusade and crossed the Danube River in September, defeating the Turkish army one after another and heading straight towards the important town of Varna by the Black Sea. [4]
At the same time, the factions within the imperial government were fiercely opposed and often engaged in heated arguments. Among the two most contradictory factions, Candarli Halil, the Grand Vizier, advocated for peaceful coexistence between the Ottoman Empire and European countries, while Mohammed's "Laras" Zanhanos and Ibrahim advocated for continued military conquest and territorial expansion. Due to the inability of the two factions to reach a consensus, Muhammad was unable to develop effective strategies to address the increasingly severe Crusade issue. In the end, after weighing the pros and cons, Muhammad decided to counterattack by force. [10] In this situation, Murad II was invited to preside over the political situation and led his army to defeat the Crusader attack in Varna on November 10th (see entry for the Battle of Varna). In 1446, the Yenicheri Legion launched a coup, and at their request, Murad was reinstated as the Sultan in May, while Mohammed returned to Manisa.

During this period, he studied literature, history, and philosophy from some famous local scholars, and studied classical poetry from Persia, Greece, and Rome, as well as philosophical works from the Aristotelian school. He read a large number of historical books and was particularly interested in the biographies of Alexander the Great and famous Roman commanders; Emphasis is placed on military research, with a particular focus on strategic tactics, weapon utilization, and terrain selection in warfare. In addition to his mother tongue (Ottoman Turkish), he also mastered Armenian, Greek, Slavic, Hebrew, Persian, Latin, Arabic and other languages, and was able to use them fluently. Muhammad had a strong preference for Latin poetry or prose, as well as for pagan art and astrology. He even mastered some basic mathematical knowledge and was well versed in world history and geography. All of this laid the foundation for later becoming a knowledgeable politician and military strategist. [4]
In 1451, Murad II passed away. Upon hearing the news, Muhammad immediately traveled overnight to Edirne. On February 18th, Muhammad officially succeeded to the throne in Edirne at the age of 19 and became known as Muhammad II. [2] On the day of his ascension to the throne, he immediately ordered the execution of his younger brother, who was still in swaddling clothes, to eliminate the root cause of the internal strife. [4]
After ascending to the throne, Mohammed II believed that reform was necessary, but after several high-ranking officials advocating for reform were killed, he had to hand over the control of the government to conservatives. It was not until he eliminated the anti Westernization reform of the Imperial Guard and the feudal cavalry of the "Tima" system that large-scale reforms began.

Destruction of Byzantium
Main entry: Battle of Constantinople
When Mohammed II ascended the throne, the Ottoman countries had already occupied the southeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, including most of Bulgaria, Thrace, Macedonia, and the Greek Peninsula. Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia and other countries are often invaded by the Ottomans, who either pay annual tribute to the Ottoman countries or recognize their suzerainty. In Asia, the Ottomans unified most of the eastern and central regions of Anatolia through means such as marriage, bribery, and military force. Only the Karamanbey Kingdom and the Greek Empire of Trebizon remained independent, hindering the Ottomans from developing towards the eastern and southern regions of Asia Minor. [4]
The first major event after Mohammed II ascended the throne was his decision to conquer the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople. At that time, the Byzantine Empire's territory was actually limited to a small area around Constantinople and a part of Moria, which was an isolated island surrounded by the Ottomans. Its monarch had long been paying tribute to the Ottoman countries. Muhammad prepared to besiege Constantinople from diplomatic, military, and other aspects. He made separate treaties with Venice and Hungary, promising to uphold the rights of Venetian merchants, reconfirming the main conditions of the 1444 Treaty of Segt, and striving to maintain neutrality between the two countries. [4]
In the winter of 1451, Mohammed II ordered the establishment of a fortress on the narrowest European coast of the Bosphorus Strait, funded by three ministers including Khalil Pasha, and built a fortress called "Bogazkesen" ("Bo") in just over four months ğ Azkesen, which means cutting off the Bosphorus Strait, was later renamed 'RumeliHisar' ı’， The magnificent fortress of Romelihisar, which corresponds to the Anadolus Hisar fortress on the Asian coast built in the late 14th century, controls the passage into and out of the Black Sea. In addition, Muhammad ordered the construction of a large number of new warships and the casting of large caliber giant guns - the Urban artillery.

In early April 1453, Mohammed II personally led a force of 150000 and surrounded Constantinople, launching a series of fierce attacks from land and sea. At that time, there were less than ten thousand defenders in the city, including 3000 soldiers from Venice and Genoa, and there was a significant difference in military strength between the two sides. But Constantinople has strong defensive fortifications, only weaker along the line of the Golden Horn. The entrance to Golden Horn was blocked with thick iron chains and sunken ships, making it impossible for the fleet to enter. Mohammad studied the defensive position and believed that the Golden Horn area must be used as a breakthrough point for the siege. He decided to use Galata, a residential area for Genoese merchants on the north coast of the Golden Horn, to try to drag warships into the bay by land. Muhammad promised to maintain the commercial privileges of Genoese merchants, and with his help, he finally sent 70 warships into the Golden Horn along the eastern border of Galata using an oiled wooden slide. The sudden appearance of the earthen ship in the Golden Horn frightened the defending soldiers. They had to draw troops from other positions to strengthen the defense on the Golden Horn Line, and the situation inside the city deteriorated significantly. But the military and civilians of Constantinople risked their lives and fought bravely, repeatedly repelling the Turkish army's attacks, causing them significant losses.

The Turkish army has been unable to attack for a long time, and coupled with rumors of Western reinforcements approaching, there have been internal shaking and unrest. The military conference twice discussed whether to withdraw the troops. Some ministers strongly advocate for a retreat. But Muhammad II was well aware of the numerous contradictions between Christian countries, and it was impossible to form a strong alliance in the short term to provide substantial assistance to Constantinople, which was in danger. Therefore, he advocated for the continued siege. [4]
On May 29th, the Turkish army launched another fierce attack. In order to boost morale, Mohammed II gave pre war encouragement to the soldiers, declaring that he did not seek anything else except the city itself; After the city was broken, soldiers were allowed to plunder and burn for three days, and all gold, silver, treasures, prisoners, and slaves belonged to the victor. On the same day, the Turkish army captured Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire fell. On the second day of capturing Constantinople, Mohammed arrested and executed his main minister who advocated for the city's withdrawal.

The fall of Constantinople ended the millennium long Byzantine Empire, and Constantinople (later known as Istanbul) became the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire. It greatly strengthened the Ottoman Empire's internal control and external aggression and expansion, significantly increasing its influence on international affairs. German philosopher Karl Marx believed that since the occupation of Constantinople, the Ottoman Sultan had acquired the navy and used his Greek slaves to engage in professions that required high levels of technology and intelligence. [4]
Two days after the fall of Constantinople, Muhammad entered the city and ordered an early cessation of looting, allowing many ancient buildings and precious cultural relics to be preserved. He released many prisoners of war and slaves assigned to him, in order to retain the surviving residents in the city. In addition, he converted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque, but held a tolerant attitude towards Greek Christians within the empire. [4]
Attack from all sides
Mohammed II launched multiple conquest campaigns 30 years after his second accession to the throne. His footprints have been left in the Balkan Peninsula of Europe and the Asia Minor region of Asia.

European part
In 1456, Mohammed II led his troops to Belgrade in an attempt to open the way to Hungary. Hungarian general Yanos Hunyati led the Christian coalition to support Belgrade and dealt a heavy blow to the Turkish army on July 27th. Mohammed himself was also injured and forced to retreat (see the siege of Belgrade). In 1459, Muhammad sent troops again and ultimately conquered the Kingdom of Serbia. [4]
In 1461, Mohammed II sent troops to invade Wallachia due to Grand Duke Vlad III Cepesh's refusal to pay annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire. In the summer of 1462, Vlad III repelled Muhammad in the Battle of Targovesta. But Muhammad successfully expelled Vlad III and forced the Duchy of Wallachia to submit by supporting the "beautiful man" Basalab Radu as the new Grand Duke. In 1476, Vlad III returned to Lower Wallachia with the support of Hungary and expelled Radu, but was soon killed and Wallachia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire again. [4]
From 1458 to 1463, the Ottomans annexed the remaining Byzantine territories in the Balkans and incorporated Greece and Moria into the imperial territory. In 1463, Bosnia was conquered.

During the reign of Murad II, the leader of the Albanian independence movement, George Castriotti Skanderbe, repeatedly thwarted the Ottoman Empire's attacks. After Muhammad II ascended the throne, he successively sent troops to attack Albania in 1457 and 1467, and once personally led an expedition, all of which ended in failure. In 1468, Scampey passed away. From 1478 to 1479, Muhammad basically conquered most of Albania (see entry for the Battle of Cruya). [4] [15]
In order to prevent the Venetians from attacking the northwest of the Ottoman Empire, Mohammed II took the initiative to launch an attack on the maritime power of the Venetian Republic. From 1463 to 1479, the Ottoman Empire engaged in a 16 year war with Venice, ultimately forcing Venice to cede most of the islands in the Aegean Sea (see entry for the Ottoman War). [4] Afterwards, Muhammad turned to actively attacking Transylvania and the southern regions of Austria. [15]
While advancing westward, Mohammed II also began his expansion in Eastern Europe. In the winter of 1474, due to the refusal of the ruler of the Principality of Moldova, Grand Duke Stefan, to pay tribute and the port city, Muhammad sent eunuch Suriman to command a large army claiming 120000 to invade Moldova. On January 10, 1475, Stefan commanded 40000 troops to launch an ambush at a high bridge near Vaslui, defeating the Turkish army (see entry: Battle of High Bridge). Muhammad was furious upon hearing the news and sent Ahmad Pasha to lead a fleet to the Crimean Peninsula in May of the same year, occupying cities along the Black Sea coast controlled by Genoa and Venice, such as Kafa (now Feodosia), Tana, Sudak, and Kerch. By 1478, the Crimean Khanate of Khanty, Hammingri Glee, recognized the Sultan as the highest suzerain. The land centered around Kafa was directly incorporated into Sudanese territory, while the Crimean grasslands and the lower reaches of the Dnieper River remained under the rule of the Crimean Khan. [4] This military operation greatly enhanced the influence of the Ottoman Empire in the northern Black Sea and prepared for the Ottoman Empire's invasion of Moldova from the north. [15]
In May 1476, Muhammad II sent an envoy to demand the tribute of Stefanagan, but was rejected and led an army claiming 150000 to launch an attack. On July 26th, a fierce battle broke out between the two sides in the White Valley, with Mohammad defeating Stefan, but both the Molotov and Turkish armies suffered heavy losses. Muhammad believed it was difficult to fight again, so he ordered a retreat (see entry: Battle of White Valley).

In early 1480, Mohammed II sent troops to cross the Strait of Otranto by boat and invaded southern Italy. Within less than two weeks, he captured the city of Otranto, causing panic among the Italian countries (see entry for Ottoman Empire invasion of Otranto). [4] In May, Mehmeh Pasha led 60000 people across the sea to attack Rhode Island, but was forced to retreat in mid August due to the resolute resistance of the Hospital Knights (see entry for the siege of Rhode Island). [15]
Asian part
In Asia, the main goal of Mohammed II's military operations was to unify the Anatolian Peninsula. In 1461, he first eliminated the Trebizon Empire along the Black Sea coast, and then shifted his focus to the independent and semi independent Turkic principalities in Asia Minor. In 1464, there was an internal conflict in the Karamanbey state in the central southern part of the peninsula, and Muhammad took the opportunity to intervene. Afterwards, his struggle with the Karaman state lasted for 12 years, with both sides having their own victories and defeats. It was not until 1474 that Muhammad sent Ahmad Pasha to conquer the core of Karaman and force his Bey to submit. [4] [15]
Subsequently, Mohammed II faced the Aries monarch Uzon Hassan, who ruled Armenia and western Iran. Hassan formed an alliance with Venice and secretly supported Karamanbey's independent activities, making him the biggest enemy of Muhammad's unification of Asia Minor. In 1473, Muhammad defeated Hassan in the Battle of Erzinjan. In 1475, the Ottoman army defeated Hassan again and annexed the eastern region of Asia Minor under his rule. [4]
The victory of Muhammad II's battle completed the unification of Asia Minor and established the dominant position of the Ottoman Empire in the region. [9] Starting from the second half of the 11th century when the Turkic people entered Asia Minor in groups, the region gradually became a predominantly inhabited area of the Turkic people. As the core area of the Ottoman Empire, the unification of Asia Minor was of great significance in the development history of the Ottoman Empire, and played a positive role in the formation of the Türkiye nation. [4]
With the conquest of the Balkans and Asia Minor, Islam was widely spread in these regions. In the late period of his reign, Mohammed II began to use the title "Fatih" (meaning Conqueror), also known as "the masters of the two territories (referring to European territories and Asia Minor) and the two seas (referring to the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea).". [4] In addition, Muhammad also used the title "Kayser-i Rum, Roman Caesar," to increase the legitimacy of his rule over parts of the empire's European territories.

The Journey of Death
Mohammed II had an outgoing personality in his early years and was easy to socialize with. But as he grew older, he became increasingly solitary and suspicious. In 1472, some ministers attempted to overthrow him and proclaimed his youngest son Jem as the Sultan. After the incident was exposed, Muhammad became even more suspicious and took many measures to prevent being assassinated. Armed personnel were prohibited from approaching Sudan, and no one was allowed to dine with Sudan. Even specialized security facilities were installed in the bathroom. In 1477, Muhammad promulgated a shocking law declaring that "the person who ascended to the throne among my sons has the right to kill his own brother in order to maintain the peace of the throne and the country." This law became the basis for brother slaughter in the Ottoman royal family for over a century. [4]
In early 1481, Muhammad II prepared to go on an expedition to Rhode Island (there are also rumors that he planned to go to Rome). In April, he crossed the Bosphorus Strait and arrived at the assembly point of his troops in Skodal, preparing to lead his troops through Anatolia. On May 3rd, Muhammad passed away at the age of 49 in a military camp called "Sudan's Ranch" near Maltepe, across the sea from Constantinople. (Different explanations of his cause of death can be found in the "Controversy of Figures" directory.). [15] Muhammad was buried in the tomb next to the Fatih Mosque in Istanbul after his death. [4] After his death, his sons Bayezid (also known as Bayezid II) and Jem (known as Jem Sultan) engaged in a struggle for the Sultan's throne, which was not completely quelled until 1495.