Muhammad Ali (Arabic: محمديشش, English: Muharomad Ali; March 4, 1769 – August 2, 1849), full name Muhammad Ali ibn Ibrahim, was born in Kawara (now part of the Greek Republic). Modern Egyptian politician, Governor General of the Ottoman Empire in Egypt, and founder of the Muhammad Ali dynasty (reigned from 1805 to 1848).
Alibaba was engaged in tobacco trading in its early years. In 1798, he enlisted and participated twice in the resistance against Napoleon's invasion of Egypt. Later, taking advantage of the power vacuum in Egypt and gaining the support of the local people, he was enthroned as the Governor General of Egypt in 1805, nominally submitting to the Ottoman Empire, but in reality becoming an independent regime. Defeated the British Interventional Army in 1807. In 1811, the Mamluk forces were eliminated and Egypt was unified. He successively sent troops to suppress the Wahhabi uprising in Hanzhi, conquered Sudan, and participated in the Greek War of Independence. The First Turkish Egyptian War was launched from 1831 to 1833, occupying Palestine, Syria, and other territories in an attempt to establish an Arab Empire centered around Egypt. In 1839, the Second Turkish Egyptian War was launched and a decisive victory was achieved. However, under the interference of major powers such as Britain and Russia, the troops were forced to withdraw, retaining only the hereditary power of the Egyptian Governor General and the jurisdiction over Sudan. In 1848, he was succeeded by his son Ibrahim. He passed away in Alexandria in 1849 at the age of 80.
During Ali's reign in Egypt, he carried out a bold modernization reform. He prioritized the reform of the land system, developed agriculture, valued education, and founded the first batch of modern industries in Egypt, with military industry as the main focus. At the same time, the army was reorganized, foreign instructors were hired to train the new army, and a navy was established. The series of policies implemented by Ali made Egypt a strong Eastern Mediterranean country in the late 1830s and the earliest Arab country to implement Westernization reforms. He is therefore hailed as the "founder of modern Egypt".

Early experiences
Mohammad Ali's full name is Mohammad Ali bin Ibrahim. Originally an Albanian, he was born on March 4, 1769, in the Greek coastal town of Kavala (then part of the province of Rumelia in the Ottoman Empire), into a family of small military leaders stationed there. My father is Ibrahim Aga, a local subordinate military officer (captain of the escort team). [2]
Ali has 17 siblings and their family is facing financial difficulties. He lost his mother in his early years and his father passed away at the age of 14, so he sought refuge with his uncle. After my uncle's death, he made a living alone outside. Later, he was taken in by the commander of the city defense army and adopted as an adopted son, raising him to adulthood. During this period, Ali learned military skills such as horseback riding and shooting, and joined the army in local taxation and suppressing riots, becoming a small officer. At the same time, Alibaba also went deep into the mountainous areas of Macedonia, purchased cheap tobacco, brought it to Cavala, and sold it at a high price to European merchants. At this time, Ali met French businessman Leon, learned business skills, and gained a preliminary understanding of the situation abroad. After the death of the commander of the Kavala City Defense Army, Ali inherited his inheritance and married his cousin, a wealthy widow.

Rise of Egypt
Twice antibody method
Main entry: Napoleon's expedition to Egypt and Syria
In July 1798, Napoleon, the commander of the Eastern Army of the First French Republic, led his army to invade Egypt, forcing the Ottoman Empire to declare war on France. Ali, who was 29 years old, enlisted as a deputy in the Kawara local army (about 300 people) (actually responsible for commanding the army) and followed the Ottoman regular army to Egypt. An Austrian army of 18000 people traveled a long distance and landed near the port of Alexandria in Abukir. They were attacked by 6000 French soldiers who were waiting for them to work, and were defeated, with many drowning. The Kawara army was also completely destroyed, and Ali was luckily rescued from the water by the British navy stationed in Abukir, and then fled back to Kawara. [2]
In early 1801, Ali once again joined the Ottoman army, recruiting Albanians in Syria, Palestine, and other places, and reorganized into a powerful Albanian cavalry team. Back then, the Austrian army once again entered Egypt and fought alongside Britain against France. On May 9th, Ali's cavalry launched a surprise attack at night, taking advantage of the French army's weakened defenses, and achieved victory in Romana on the Sinai Peninsula. Due to his ability to conquer battles and profound strategies, he was soon appointed as the commander of the Albanian Legion (the main force of the Egyptian Governor General) by the Ottoman army commander Husru. [2]

Seize political power
During the Ottoman Empire's rule over Egypt, the Mamluks were an important class in the political structure of Egypt. Under their rule, Egypt experienced internal corruption, economic decline, population decline, and constant uprisings. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt dealt a heavy blow to the power of Mamluk. And Islamic leaders and emerging merchants within the ruling class of Egypt also hope to end the chaotic situation. Alibaba seized the opportunity and, on the one hand, utilized flexible and ever-changing political tactics to create conflicts between the Mamluk and Ottoman governments, constantly changing the targets of joint attacks and weakening opponents; On the other hand, utilizing the emotions and power of the Egyptian people, expressing goodwill towards them, and making every effort to strengthen their own strength.
In September 1801, the French army withdrew from Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire resumed its rule over Egypt. With the support of Britain, the Mamluks rose again and became the ruling class of Egypt. Faced with this situation, Ali first formed an alliance with Mamluk in 1803 to confront the Ottoman government. He instructed the underpaid soldiers to launch a mutiny in Cairo, defeat the Austrian army at Damieta Port, and capture the commander-in-chief Hosru. The new Pasha sent by the Ottoman government was also thrown into the sea by soldiers in 1804. At this point, the influence of the Ottoman government in Egypt was greatly weakened. [2]
Afterwards, Ali turned to Mamluk. He used and instigated internal conflicts within the Mamluk group, causing them to kill each other. On March 11, 1804, the Albanian army stationed in Cairo publicly attacked the homes of Mamlukbei (the titles bestowed upon local officials and officers by the Ottoman Empire, second only to Pasha), forcing them to surrender. Ali also had secret dealings with the Ottoman military chief Hurshid stationed in Alexandria, secretly forming an alliance. Later, Ali used the support of Egypt's religious leaders, gentlemen, and wealthy businessmen to use the name of the Egyptian people to appoint Ibrahim as the governor of Egypt, and to combat the power of Mamluk.

After defeating the power of Mamluk, Ali began to bribe Islamic leaders, gentlemen, and merchants to gain their support. Hurshid first requested the Ottoman government to bring Ali back to Albania, but was forced to retract the decision at the request of Egyptian religious leaders, businessmen, and other social classes. While Ali was at war with Mamluk in Upper Egypt, Hurshid brought reinforcements from Syria to Cairo. These soldiers raped and looted, which was unpopular with the people. After hearing the news, Ali immediately returned to Cairo under the pretext of requesting military pay. He appeared to obey Hurshid on the surface, secretly incited local gentry, and demanded that Hurshid withdraw the Syrian army and arrange for the army to surround Cairo. [2]
After Hurshid refused the demands of the gentry, they announced the deposing of Hurshid in May 1805, appointing Ali as the Governor General of Egypt, and sending a delegation to Constantinople (Istanbul) to request the permission of Sultan Selim III. Selim III had no choice but to formally appoint Ali as the Pasha of Egypt in July of the same year. [2] At this point, the Muhammad Ali Dynasty has actually been established.
In 1806, Selim III announced the dismissal of Ali and re appointed Musa as the Pasha of Egypt. Ali bribed Musa to voluntarily abdicate; One side sent his eldest son Ibrahim (also known as Ibrahim Pasha) to Constantinople to pay tribute to the Ottoman government as a token of loyalty. Coinciding with the seventh Russo Turkish War, Selim III had no time to look south, so in November he once again recognized Ali as the Pasha of Egypt. [2]
Defeat the British Interventional Army
Britain did not want to see the establishment of a unified regime in Egypt and was worried that France would invade Egypt again, so it decided to take preemptive action and eliminate Ali. On March 20, 1807, a British intervention army of 5000 landed in Alexandria and easily occupied the area due to the surrender of the defending general. To ensure the food supply in Alexandria, the British launched an attack on Rosetta on March 29th, but it failed. The commander was killed and 120 people were captured. Ali mobilized the Egyptian people to resist the British army, organized a volunteer army to move north in Cairo, and strengthened Cairo's defense. On April 9th, 4000 British troops counterattacked Rosetta and captured Abu Mansour. The defenders of Rosetta defended the city for 20 days, and finally joined forces with the volunteer army to eliminate 400 British soldiers and capture 400. The British army suffered repeated setbacks and had to negotiate with Ali on September 14th to withdraw from Egypt. [2]
The victory over Britain initially consolidated Ali's political power and earned him the title of "winner".

Consolidate political power
Main entry: Saladin Castle Massacre
After the end of the war against Britain, the biggest threat to the Ali regime within Egypt was the Islamic leader and the Mamluk forces. These religious leaders rely on the religious real estate they manage, contract land taxes, and exploit farmers. After the failure of the British armed invasion of Egypt, the position of Islamic leaders continued to rise, and their representative figure, Omar McClam, even sat on an equal footing with Ali, becoming a major concern for Ali. After Ali's wings were fully developed, he adopted a strategy of fragmentation and utilized the conflicts between the elders to concentrate his efforts on attacking Omar McClem, and exiled him to Dumart. From then on, the Islamic leader was no longer a pivotal force on the Egyptian political stage. [7]
Afterwards, Ali was determined to eliminate Mamluk in order to stabilize the regime. He appeared to show concern for the upper echelons of Mamluk and invited them to reside in Egypt. But secretly, he began planning to catch it all. On March 1, 1811, Ali invited the leaders of the Mamluks and their entourage from near Cairo to attend a banquet at Saladin Castle in Cairo, under the pretext of appointing his second son, Tucson, to lead troops to Hanzhi (now the western coastal area of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). The relaxed Mamluk leader accompanied only a few attendants to the banquet. After the banquet, Ali immediately closed the door and launched a surprise attack on the Mamluk leader. As a result, only one person was caught and the rest were annihilated (there are different opinions about the number of Mamluks killed, including 74 and nearly 500). [2] [7]
Subsequently, Ali launched a large-scale search throughout Egypt and sent Ibrahim to Upper Egypt to eradicate the Mamluk forces. After more than a year of suppression, a total of over 1000 people were eliminated. The remaining Mamluk party either fled to various places in a hurry or swore allegiance to Ali, while some of the remaining parties fled to Sudan. At this point, the Mamluks, which had an impact on Egypt for 500 years, no longer existed as a political force, and their tax inclusive territories were confiscated and nationalized. [2]
Tetrahedral expansion
Once Alibaba completes its founding mission, its ambition to dominate the world begins to expand. Since 1811, he has continuously expanded outward, plundered territories, enslaved other ethnic groups, and attempted to establish a new Arab Empire.

Occupy Han Records
Main entry: Egypt's conquest of the Arabian Peninsula
In 1811, Ali, at the request of the Ottoman government, sent his son Tucson to send troops to Hanzhi to suppress the uprising of the Saudi family and the Wahhabi sect against Ottoman rule. The Egyptian army encountered heroic resistance from the Arab people on the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in heavy casualties. Ali personally went on a campaign and, after a year and eight months of hard work, suppressed the uprising. [7] [10-11]
In 1816, the uprising erupted again, and Ali sent Ibrahim to conquer Hanzhi. Every time he went, he destroyed water wells, burned down houses, and slaughtered the people. In September 1818, the Egyptian army occupied most of Hanzhi and took control of the Islamic holy sites of Mecca and Medina. However, during the seven-year war, the Egyptian military and civilians suffered as many as 100000 casualties, paying a heavy price.

Conquering Sudan
In order to control the entire Nile River basin, crack down on the remaining Mamluk forces fleeing to Donggula, expand trade with inland Africa, and occupy gold, gemstones, and other resources, plunder Sudanese wealth, and kidnap Sudanese youth to expand the army, Ali decided to invade Sudan. [7] [12-13]
In 1820, under the banner of suppressing the remnants of Mamluk in northern Sudan, Ali sent his son Ismail to lead an army of 4000 to expand into the Sudanese region. Ismail was unstoppable, not only eliminating the remnants of Mamluk, forcing the surrender of the Sultan of Fenji in the northern city of Sennar, and eliminating the Sultanate of Fenji. He also seized the Kordofan region from the Furs. By 1821, Ismail had taken control of all areas of Sudan except for Darfur and the Red Sea coast. By 1823, most of Sudan was formally a territory of the Ottoman Empire, but in reality it became a territory of Egypt. Ali divided Sudan into four administrative regions and built a new city in 1825 at the confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers, named Khartoum, as the administrative center of the Egyptian Sultan. [7] [9] [12]
Greek War of Independence
Main entry: Greek War of Independence
In March 1821, an uprising broke out in mainland Greece, and in 1822, the rebels declared Greece's independence. Subsequently, Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent troops to suppress it, but progress was slow.
In July 1824, Ali reached an agreement with Mahmud II to send troops to assist in suppressing the Greek uprising, on the condition that after the Egyptian army occupied Moria, Mahmud II allowed Ali to gain control of Crete, Damascus, Tripoli, and Syria. After observing the attitudes of the great powers and repeatedly evading them, Ali decided to agree to the request of Mahmoud II. In February 1825, he sent Ibrahim with 16 warships, carrying 17000 infantry, 700 cavalry, and four squadrons of artillery, to land on the Peloponnese Peninsula. With his advantage, the Egyptian army quickly occupied Tripolis and most of the peninsula. In April 1826, Ibrahim forcibly captured the important western Greek town of Mysorongion and occupied Athens in August. By June 1827, the Greek territory north of the Corinth region was reoccupied by the Ottoman Empire, and the Greek uprising army suffered successive defeats. [7] [10]
At this moment, Britain, France, and Russia, who supported Greek independence, began to intervene in the Greek war. In July 1827, Britain, France, and Russia signed the Treaty of London, calling for a ceasefire between the warring parties. Although Ali was the first to express his willingness to accept it, Mahmud II refused to accept the treaty. In September, Britain, France, and Russia sent troops to cut off the transportation lines between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. On October 20th, the Battle of Novarino broke out, and the Three Kingdoms Combined Fleet engaged in a fierce 4-hour naval battle with the Aeo Fleet. The Aeo Fleet was heavily damaged, with at least 29 out of 64 ships sunk. After the war, Ali made peace with the three countries alone, and Ibrahim led the remaining troops back to Egypt in October 1828. [7] In April 1830, the Ottoman Empire accepted the London Protocol and recognized Greece's independence

At its peak
Main entry: First Turkish Egyptian War
Syria has an important geographical location and abundant resources. As early as 1810, Ali planned to exchange a huge sum of money for the Ottoman Empire's rule over Syria. By the 1820s, Egypt claimed that Syria's independent status was difficult to maintain. Ali's support for the Ottoman Empire's suppression of the Greek uprising caused a significant loss of his own national strength, so he turned his attention back to Syria. After the Battle of Novarino, Ali demanded that Mahmoud II fulfill his promise to bring Syria and Crete under his jurisdiction, but Mahmoud II was only willing to hand over Crete, which led to the rupture of the relationship between Io. [14]
In 1830, Ali once again demanded that Mahmoud II fulfill his promise, but was not responded to. On October 31, 1831, Ali sent Ibrahim to take Palestine (part of Greater Syria) directly from the Sinai Peninsula under the pretext of an argument with Governor Abdullah of Akkah. [10]
Ibrahim led his army of 30000 (also known as 40000) soldiers to advance by land and water, and launched a holy war slogan to rebuild the Arab Empire, which gained the support of the Arabs. The Egyptian army successively captured Ali, Gaza, Jaffa and other places, and the Lebanese chief openly supported Ali. Syrians also hoped to use Egypt to break away from the Ottoman Empire. In April 1832, Mahmoud II issued an edict to dismiss Ali and Ibrahim from their positions. On May 27th, the Egyptian army captured Aka, seized Damascus on June 15th, and in July, nearly 4000 Ottoman soldiers were annihilated near Homs at the cost of 100 casualties, and all Austrian artillery was seized. Shortly thereafter, Holmes and Aleppo fell one after another, and the Egyptian side quickly occupied the entire Syria. To prevent the Ottoman Empire from counterattacking, Ibrahim marched straight into Anatolia, and the Egyptian army was unstoppable. On December 21st, in the Battle of Konya, they once again defeated the 60000 Austrian army led by Vizier with 30000 troops.

At the request of the Ottoman Empire, on February 20, 1833, a Russian fleet and 18000 troops arrived in Constantinople. After conquering Qutahia, Ibrahim was only three days away from Constantinople and had plans to advance towards Bursa and further advance. Britain and France intervened to limit Russia's influence in the Ottomans, and Mahmoud II was also afraid of Russia's threat, while Ali did not want to offend European powers. In this situation, on April 8th (some say March 29th), Io signed the Agreement of Kutahya. The Ottoman government revoked the decision to dismiss Ali and his son, recognized Ali's rule over Egypt, Hanzhi, and Crete, and placed Syria and Adana under Ali's jurisdiction. Ibrahim became the governor of Jeddah, Damascus, Aleppo, and Adana; Egypt withdrew its troops from Anatolia and recognized the Ottoman Sultan's suzerainty over Egypt. [10] [14]
At this point, Ali's power reached its peak, with its empire stretching from the Syrian Desert in the east, to the Libyan Desert in the west, to the Mediterranean and Toros Mountains in the north, and to the Arabian Sea and southern Sudan in the south. An empire spanning Asia and Africa suddenly emerged. At that time, British politician Lord Palmerston commented, "His true plan was to establish an Arab kingdom that included all Arabic speaking countries." According to the Global History, "this plan was to establish an Arab empire outside the Ottoman provinces south of Asia Minor.".