Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (German: Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina, English: Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina; May 13, 1717- November 29, 1780), commonly referred to as Maria Theresa (also known as Theresa [3]), was the Grand Duke of the Habsburg dynasty of the Grand Duchy of Austria (reigning from October 20, 1740- November 29, 1780), queen of Hungary and Bohemia, as well as monarch of Croatia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Galicia and Lodomeria, Austrian Netherlands, and Parma. Daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and wife of Holy Roman Emperor Franz I. [32]
After the death of Charles VI in 1740, Maria Theresa ascended to the throne in accordance with the provisions of the Imperial Edict, becoming the first Grand Duchess of Austria. His accession to the throne was opposed by Prussia, France, and other countries, triggering the War of Austrian Succession. In 1745, he helped his husband Franz become the emperor of the empire, establishing the Habsburg Lorraine dynasty, while himself was the actual ruler. In 1748, he gained recognition of his throne from Prussia and other countries at the cost of ceding part of his territory. During the reign, enlightened authoritarianism was implemented and various reforms were carried out to enhance national strength. In 1756, they joined forces with France and Russia to launch the Seven Years' War against Prussia and Britain, but ultimately failed to regain Silesia. Continuing to advance the reform cause after the war. After the death of Franz I in 1765, he and his son Joseph II jointly held power in the court. In 1780, Maria Theresa passed away at the age of 63.
Maria Theresa was the only female ruler in Habsburg history. During her 40 year reign, she revived and revitalized the ancient Habsburg dynasty, laying the foundation for the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Austria into the modern state of the Austrian Empire. Since the 18th century, Theresa has gradually been recognized as the most popular ruler of the Habsburg dynasty.

girlhood
On May 13, 1717, Maria Theresa Verbuga Amalia Christina (commonly known as Maria Theresa or Maria Theresa) was born in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Austria. [4] She was the only surviving child of 32 year old Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI of the Habsburg dynasty, and Queen Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick Wolfenb ü ttel. [6]
Charles VI inherited the territories of the Habsburg family and the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor. To ensure the hereditary right to the throne, he issued the "Imperial Edict" in 1713. At that time, he had no descendants, and his brother Joseph had no male descendants, only two daughters. Charles VI emphasized in this edict that the territories of the Habsburg family, the Grand Duchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Hungary, and the Kingdom of Bohemia, were inseparable. If there was no male heir, the throne should be inherited by the eldest daughter. In order to obtain the guarantee of the electors within the Holy Roman Empire, Charles VI agreed that the throne of the Holy Roman Empire could be elected from among the seven electors according to the provisions of the Golden Seal Edict, which was passed at the Imperial Diet. But due to the prevailing Salic Code at that time, which prohibited women from inheriting the throne, this arrangement of the throne needed to be recognized by major European powers. Charles VI formed alliances with the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia through secret diplomacy and ceding land. In 1731, Britain and France also recognized the "Imperial Edict". [7] But this edict lacks binding force on the princes. The Austrian general Prince Eugen also said before his death, "To enrich the country and strengthen the army, we cannot overly trust the 'Imperial Edict'

Charles VI originally intended to have a male heir, but what came was a daughter. In 1718, another princess Maria Anna was born. In 1724, they had another daughter named Maria Amalia (who lived to be six years old). At this time, the emperor was already 39 years old and he had never had a son or a daughter again. [8]
(The above catalog mainly refers to [36])
Theresa is intelligent, skilled in singing and dancing, and skilled in horseback riding. The court education she received in her early years was a typical princess style education, focusing on court etiquette, music, dance, and learning Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish, rather than the Hungarian and Czech languages that were required as an heir to the Austrian throne. In addition, she also received a strict basic education influenced by the Jesuits. But they have not received guidance in political theory, military science, or diplomacy. This indicates that Charles VI had no intention of nurturing her as an heir at the beginning of her birth. Theresa later mastered world history and learned some knowledge that rulers needed, such as Czech language. [9] Overall, she did not receive a systematic monarchy education before ascending to the throne. [58]
When Theresa was young, Charles VI planned to betroth her to Peter II, the only grandson of Russian Emperor Peter I. However, when Peter II died young in 1730, Theresa escaped the fate of marrying abroad. In terms of marriage, she does not agree with her father's request for her to marry the heir to the Spanish throne and achieve the reunification of Austria and Spain; She also disagreed with Prince Eugen's proposal to marry Prince Karl Albrecht of Bavaria (see entry Charles VII) to consolidate the Habsburg dynasty's rule in South Germany. [4] She claimed that she had "sacrificed herself once for the country and was now only a survivor, with ample reason to govern her second marriage" [10]. At the age of five, she fell in love with her cousin, Duke Franz Stefan of Lorraine (see entry Franz I). This handsome and agile nobleman's son came to live in the court of Vienna at the age of 15. Charles VI agreed to his daughter's request.

After the end of the War of the Polish Succession, in order to accommodate Louis XV's father-in-law, the deposed Polish king Stanis ł aw I, Franz gave up his family's territory of Lorraine for his fianc é e and went to distant northern Italy to inherit the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. His sacrifice deeply moved Charles VI and Theresa, who granted the betrothal of Princess Maria Anna to his brother, Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine. After their marriage on February 12, 1736, the Franz couple received the titles of Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Tuscany and began to establish their rule in northern Italy. [4]
Battle for the Throne
succeed to the crown
On October 20, 1740, Charles VI passed away at the age of 55. On that day, Maria Theresa, who was only 23 years old, ascended to the throne and became the Grand Duke of the Habsburg dynasty in Austria. Although she never used the title of 'Queen' before her death, people still habitually refer to her as' Queen '. [4]
As the only female ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, Theresa was acutely aware of the difficult situation she faced while in power. The Habsburg family had only one army of less than 100000 people, with low morale and ineffective command. The national treasury is empty, food is scarce, epidemics are rampant, and the people are in despair. And the surrounding powers are watching closely, ready to launch a war at any time. Therefore, she can only face the challenge with a hundredfold diligence and firm belief. [2]
On the early morning of the second day after ascending to the throne, Theresa convened a council meeting and firmly stated that only she had the right to inherit the throne in accordance with the Constitution of the Nation, and was determined to defend existing treaties and agreements. At the same time, she will retain all these important ministers and work faithfully with them to maintain the position of the Habsburg Empire. The Queen firmly believes that it is history that has given her a mission, so she has devoted herself to her work with great enthusiasm. She learned that the people were deeply concerned about the fate of the empire, so she often appeared among them and tried her best to appease them. She opened the palace gates and received the lowest ranking officials, listening to their demands and grievances.

Theresa worked with unimaginable diligence. She has to personally review every case file and every task, and she must make the most of her time, even working at night. She enjoys touring around the country and walking for several hours in one breath in the countryside, with only one light meal on the way. Before giving birth, she went to the opera house to meet with actors, but after giving birth, she was hardly seen recuperating. Within a few days, she would wander the streets or work at a desk. [12]
Inheritance War
Main entry: War of Austrian Succession
1740 was a precarious year in Austrian history. European powers and German princes saw Theresa as weak and vulnerable, and took the opportunity to carry out conspiracy activities to seize territory. Austria's domestic treasury has also been depleted and morale has been low due to years of foreign wars. A group attempting to betray the queen in order to allow Elector Karl Albrecht of Bavaria to rule Austria appeared in the Vienna court. King Frederick II of Prussia was preparing to launch a war against Austria. However, France, Bavaria, Saxony, Spain and other countries ignored the "Imperial Edict" and refused to recognize Theresa's right to inherit the throne, and elected Albert, who was Joseph I's son-in-law, as the heir to the Habsburg dynasty's throne. Young and inexperienced Theresa is in a state of isolation and helplessness. [4]
In December 1740, Friedrich II declared war and sent troops to invade the prosperous province of Silesia in Austria and even the entire German region. France took the opportunity to form an anti Austrian alliance with Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Spain, Sardinia and other countries, and launched the War of Partition of Austria. In early April 1741, the Austrian army and the Prussian army fought at Morwitz, and Prussia emerged victorious. In July, French and Bavarian armies entered Bohemia, and Albrecht was elected as the King of Bohemia (a title usually held by the Archduke of Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor, but due to the Bohemian King's coat of arms being taken to Vienna, Albrecht did not hold a coronation ceremony at this time). In February 1742, Albert was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor by the German princes, known as Charles VII. [4] At this time, the capital of Bohemia, Prague, was also occupied by German states and French troops. At this time, Prague was also occupied by German states and French troops.

When the country was in imminent danger, Theresa began to showcase her extraordinary talents and gradually became an outstanding ruler. At the age of only 23, she solemnly declared, 'Although I am a poor queen, I have a man's heart!' expressing her determination to defend the throne and the unity of the empire. Theresa immediately took emergency measures and arranged for her husband Franz to jointly govern the court, retaining politicians Balterstein and Stalheim as ministers to make up for her lack of experience in governing the court. At the same time, make every effort to ease internal conflicts. The Bavarian group of the Vienna court once used wild beasts in the forests near the capital to harm farmers' crops, causing a stir and proposing the slogan "Let Bavaria rule". Theresa did not suppress the rioters, but sent troops to eliminate the wild beasts in the forest, calming down the dissatisfied farmers, and declaring the conspiracy of the Bavarian group bankrupt. In dealing with multi-ethnic issues within the empire, she negotiated to give other ethnic groups a certain degree of self-determination. For example, when agreeing to exchange the position of Governor General (Vice King of Hungary) on the Hungarian issue, the consent of the Hungarian side should be obtained; When discussing Hungary's domestic and foreign affairs, only Hungarians are invited to participate; Positions and titles within Hungary are only granted to local residents; She also did not hold accountable the nobles who had supported the Elector of Bavaria in the past. [4]
Through the above policies, Theresa received support from within. On June 25, 1741, Theresa was officially crowned Queen of Hungary in Bresberg. On September 11 of the same year, at the Bresberg Conference, she dressed in carefully prepared Hungarian national attire and held her young eldest son Joseph to show them, demanding that they defend the future King of Hungary. The young new Queen of Hungary delivered a passionate speech:
The survival of the Kingdom of Hungary has reached its most dangerous moment! Our people, our children, and our king are in imminent danger! The abandoned Hungarian people of the world, our only weapon is our loyalty, our army, and our proven bravery.

The nobles of Hungary were moved by Theresa's speech and declared, 'Fight for the Queen! Fight for our crown and our country!' They then provided up to 50000 troops that were crucial to Austria. Afterwards, the atmosphere of distrust towards the empress's rule in China dissipated into thin air. Theresa quickly took control of the domestic situation. In terms of foreign policy, Austria allied with Russia and Britain, and obtained a loan of £ 300000 from Britain to temporarily meet the urgent needs of the war in the face of extreme financial scarcity. In July 1742, she temporarily withdrew from the anti Austrian coalition by signing the Treaty of Bresberg, which recognized Prussia's military occupation of the vast majority of Silesia and the Duchy of Graz. Bohemia, which was occupied by Bavaria and France, later announced military assistance to Theresa. On May 12, 1743, Theresa was crowned Queen of Bohemia in Prague. [4]
Theresa used the military provided by Hungary and hereditary territories to turn the tide of the war. The situation gradually turned around, and the army that arrived from Hungary in 1742 began to launch a counterattack on the western front. The French and Bavarian armies were expelled from Austrian territory. [14] On June 9, 1743, the Austrian army commanded by Marshal Ludwig Andreas K ö fenschler captured Munich, and the remnants of Bavaria surrendered. The French army, separated in Bohemia, fled in panic, and Charles VII became a monarch without land, army, or money. Due to the reversal of the situation and deep fear, Friedrich II tore up the neutrality treaty and led 80000 troops to attack Austria again in August 1744, launching the Second Silesian War. [15] [37]
In January 1745, Charles VII passed away in exile. This change instantly dissipated the crisis and opened the way to peace. Theresa forced Charles VII's son Maximilian III to sign the Treaty of Fuxin, giving up his claim to the Habsburg dynasty's throne in exchange for the return of his territory Bavaria. [15] On October 4th, the majority of German electors recognized Theresa's right to the throne and elected her husband Franz as the "Holy Roman Emperor of the German Nation", known as Franz I. On December 25th, Friedrich II also announced his recognition of the throne of Franz Stefan.

Afterwards, Austria successively negotiated peace with various countries. The signing of the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745 and the Treaty of Aachen in October 1748 marked the end of the eight year long War of Austrian Succession. Although Theresa lost Silesia, she successfully maintained most of the territory during the reign of Charles VI and ensured the re-election of the Holy Roman Empire by the Habsburg family (later known as the Habsburg Lorraine family after Theresa and Franz) for over 300 years. [4]
The Seven Years' War
Main entry: Seven Years' War
After the War of the Austrian Succession, although Austria overcame difficulties, the two consecutive wars exposed the corruption and incompetence within the ruling class of the Habsburg dynasty, the chaotic financial organization, and the extremely inconsistent military structure. These are all factors of defeat in war. In order to strengthen centralization and consolidate monarchy, Theresa immediately began reforms to enhance Austria's national strength. [4] She held a deep grudge against the loss of Silesia and once spoke passionately, 'God's mercy has made me strong, allowing me to wander on the thorny, painful, and tearful path he has arranged for me; even if I fight to the end, I would rather sell my last dress than give up Silesia!' [27] Friedrich II also realized that Theresa would not give up easily and once said that she had 'great ambitions and heavy grudges'.

In 1753, Theresa appointed Count Kaunitz Ritberg as the Prime Minister of the Empire and began to play a role in foreign affairs. After several years of patient and arduous efforts, the establishment of the alliance between France, Austria, Russia, and Austria was finally achieved in 1756, completing the encirclement of Prussia. One year later, he turned the Franco Austrian alliance into a formal military alliance and convinced France to participate in the war against Prussia to prevent Prussia from becoming the second German power. At the same time, he took advantage of Tsar Elizabeth Petrovna's disgust towards Friedrich II's territorial expansion and pulled Russia to the side of Austria. [4]
Seeing the situation was not good, Friedrich II claimed that he could not sit idly by in order to deal with the "conspiracy of three dresses" of Maria Theresa, Elizabeth Petrovna, and Madame Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV of France. So, Friedrich II once again took the lead and launched a surprise attack on the neutral Kingdom of Saxony in 1756, opening the curtain of the Seven Years' War. [17]
(Reference materials for the above brochure [19] [27] [38])
After the start of the Seven Years' War, with the help of the two European land powers, France and Russia, Austria had a clear strategic advantage. Although Friedrich II repeatedly defeated Austria's army, he could never tear through Theresa's strategic web. In June 1757, Marshal Leopold Joseph von Daun, known as the "Fabian of Germany" by Friedrich II, defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Colin and lifted the siege of Prague. Prussia's strategic plan to first defeat Austria before the Allied encirclement was completely destroyed. After a brief defeat in the early stages, Theresa also constantly corrected her mistakes during the war. After the Battle of L ö ttin, she removed the incompetent Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine from her position as commander-in-chief of the army and promoted the Dauphin army. In October 1758, Daun launched a surprise attack on Friedrich II's camp during the Battle of Hockzy, causing the Prussian army to lose one-third of its soldiers. In August 1759, the Austro Russian coalition defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Kulsdorf. Friedrich II was once in a desperate situation, but due to strategic differences between Austria and Russia, he missed the opportunity to directly attack the Prussian capital Berlin.

In 1762, Queen Elizabeth of Russia suddenly passed away, and the succeeding Tsar Peter III gave up the fruits of victory and made peace with Prussia alone, causing a reversal of the situation. Shortly after, Tsar Catherine II, who seized power through a coup, had no intention of continuing the war. The Austrian army, fighting alone, was driven out of Silesia. At the same time, the prolonged war worsened the finances of the Habsburg state, and Theresa had to disband her troops to save the economy. In February 1763, exhausted Austria, Prussia, and Saxony signed the Treaty of Hubertusburg, maintaining the pre war situation (see entries for the Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Hubertusburg). [4]
Due to the inability to reclaim Silesia, Prussia finally replaced Bavaria as the second largest power within the empire that could pose a threat to Austria, leaving a hidden danger to Austria's position in Germany.

Enlightened dictatorship
In the 18th century, "enlightened dictatorship" became a popular political fashion term in Europe. Theresa was also unwilling to fall behind and carried out a series of reforms under the banner of "enlightened authoritarianism". In order to implement reforms, Theresa appointed a group of talented and like-minded ministers. The appearance and loyalty of these people are the key to the success of her rule. In the early days of Theresa's reign, she first appointed Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Hogwitz to reform domestic affairs. At the same time, Count Johann Karl Ritter of Hortek rebuilt Austria's economy. Subsequently, the rising Interior Minister Kaunitz was mainly responsible for managing Austria's foreign affairs. Although Kaunitz's job was to manage foreign affairs and his main activities were focused on the late reform period, Theresa still highly praised his abilities and established a close friendship with him, which gave Kaunitz great influence in government departments. In the government at that time, whether encountering difficulties or problems, officials would consult his opinion. [4] The three ministers complemented each other and were regarded as great promoters of the creation of the modern Grand Duchy of Austria. His contributions have been compared to Richelieu and Colbert of the Bourbon dynasty in France. [55]
Serfdom has always been a major obstacle to the socio-economic development of Central and Eastern European countries. Although Theresa did not announce its abolition, she abolished the privileges of landlords serving as national tax collectors and lords' jurisdiction. At the same time, she reduced the amount of labor rent and proxy rent for farmers, eased the conflict between landlords and serfs, and laid the foundation for future abolitionist activities. Theresa also began church reform, mainly to force bishops to pledge allegiance to the emperor rather than to the Pope. Her measures laid the foundation for the reforms during the reign of Joseph II.

Theresa's various reforms consolidated the rule of the Habsburg monarchy and promoted the development of industry, commerce, science, and culture. During this period, Austria's government revenue increased nearly threefold in 20 years. [4]
Of course, Theresa's reforms also have historical limitations. Although the power of nobles and landlords was somewhat restricted after the reform, the land issue was not resolved due to strong opposition from the nobles. Except for Austria, serfdom still existed in most of the Habsburg territories. Although this reform has made some concessions to the emerging bourgeoisie, it still aims to safeguard the interests of the aristocratic ruling class. Theresa vigorously promoted Germanization in the Czech Republic and Hungary, mandating the use of German as the unified national language in various regions, prioritizing the recruitment of Germans as civil and military officials, rewarding the development of German aristocratic real estate and German capital in dependent areas, and consciously turning Hungary into an imperial agricultural vassal state, thus hindering the development of capitalism in these areas. The reform not only failed to weaken the ethnic contradictions within the Habsburg dynasty, but also made them more acute, and the legal status of non German ethnic groups deteriorated.