Aristotle (384~322 BC), an ancient philosopher, an ancient Greek, and one of the great philosophers, scientists and educators in the ancient history of the world, can be called the epitome of Greek philosophy. He was a student of Plato and a teacher of Alexander.
In 335 BC, he set up a school in Athens called Lucion, known as the School of Leisure. Marx once called Aristotle the most erudite figure among ancient Greek philosophers, and Engels called him "the ancient Hegel".
As an encyclopedic scientist, he has made contributions to almost every discipline. His writing involves ethics, metaphysics, psychology, economics, theology, political science, rhetoric, natural science, pedagogy, poetry, customs, and Athens law. Aristotle's works constructed the first extensive system of western philosophy, including morality, aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.

Aristotle was born in Staquila, Thrace, in 384 BC. This city is a colony of Greece, adjacent to the rising Macedonia. His father was the royal doctor of King Philip II of Macedonia. From his family situation, he belonged to the middle class of the slave-owner class. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study in Plato's Academy for 20 years, and did not leave until Plato died. Perhaps influenced by his father, Aristotle was interested in biology and empirical science; Under the influence of Plato, he became interested in philosophical reasoning.
He moved to Athens in 367 BC, studied medicine, and also studied at Plato College in Athens for many years. In 366 BC, Aristotle was sent to the Plato College in Athens to study. After that, Aristotle lived in the college for 20 years until the death of his teacher Plato. [1]
Thrace, the birthplace of Aristotle
Thrace, the birthplace of Aristotle
From the age of 18 to 38 - 20 years of studying philosophy with Plato in Athens, his study and life during this period had a decisive impact on his life. Socrates was Plato's teacher, and Aristotle was taught by Plato. In the Plato School Park in Athens, Aristotle performed very well. Plato called him "the spirit of the school park". But Aristotle is not a man who only worships authority and is docile in academic circles without his own ideas. Unlike the teacher who talked about metaphysics, he worked hard to collect all kinds of books and materials, and even built a library for himself.
In 347 BC, Plato died and Aristotle stayed in Athens for another two years. Because the new head of the school park agreed with the mathematical tendency in Plato's philosophy, Aristotle could not bear it and left Athens. After that, he began to travel around.
After leaving the school, Aristotle first accepted the invitation of his former schoolmate Hermias to visit Asia Minor. Hermias was then the ruler of Mesoea along the coast of Asia Minor. Aristotle also married Hermias' niece there. But in 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a riot. Aristotle had to leave Asia Minor and went to Mitirini with his family.
In 343 BC, Aristotle was summoned back to his hometown by Philip II of Macedonia. At the invitation of Philip II, he served as the teacher of Alexander the Great, who was only 13 years old at that time. At that time, Aristotle was forty-two years old. According to the records of Plutarch, the famous biographer of ancient Greece, Aristotle instilled moral, political and philosophical education into the future world leader. At the same time, Aristotle also used his influence and played an important role in the formation of Alexander the Great's thought. It was under the influence of Aristotle that Alexander the Great always cared about science and respected knowledge.
After Philip died in 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school there. The name of the school park (Lyceum) is named after the wolf killer (Lucius) near the Apollo temple. During this period, Aristotle wrote many philosophical works while giving lectures. Aristotle had a habit of walking in the corridor and garden while giving lectures. That is why the philosophy of the school garden is called "philosophy of leisure" or "philosophy of walking". Aristotle also wrote many works during this period, mainly about natural science and philosophy in natural science and physics, and the language used was much more obscure than Plato's Dialogue. Many of his works are based on lecture notes, and some are even his students' class notes. Therefore, some people regard Aristotle as the first textbook author in the West.
Athens College/Aristotle
Athens College/Aristotle
After Alexander's death, the Athenians began to rise up against the rule of Macedonia. Because of his relationship with Alexander, Aristotle had to flee to Galaxis for refuge because he was accused of not worshipping God. His school was handed over to Diophrastu. [2]
In this turbulent era, Aristotle returned to Athens and lived there for 20 years, from the year before Alexander's expedition to the year of Alexander's death.
When Aristotle came to Athens, he might have the political mission of persuading Athenians to obey Macedonia. Aristotle received a lot of preferential treatment in Athens. In addition to his prominent political status, he also received a large amount of money, materials and land support from Alexander and Macedonian bureaucrats at all levels. The Lucion School Park, which he founded, occupies a vast sports ground and garden area near the temple of Apollolucion. He founded his own school here. The teachers and students of this school are used to discussing problems while walking in the garden, so it is named "Xiaoyao School". When the news of Alexander's death spread to Athens, there was an anti-Macedonian frenzy immediately. The Athenians attacked Aristotle and sentenced him to the death penalty for the crime of non-worship. But Aristotle finally escaped from Athens.
In 322 BC, Aristotle died of a serious illness and died at the age of 63. The cause of death may be a disease accumulated over many years. At the same time, there is also speculation that he was poisoned, or jumped into the sea to kill himself because he could not explain the tide phenomenon.

work
1. Logic: "Category", "Interpretation", "Pre-analysis", "Post-analysis", "Thesis", "Argumentation", and the above six logical works are collectively called "Instrument Theory".
2. Metaphysics: Metaphysics.
3. Natural philosophy: Physics, Meteorology, On the Sky, On Birth and Death.
4. On animals: Animal History, Structure of Animals, Movement of Animals, Progress of Animals, Reproduction of Animals, Nicomark Ethics, 158 City-state System.
5. On people: On the soul, On feeling and being felt, On memory, On sleep, On dreams, On omens in sleep, On the length of life, On youth, old age and death, On breathing, On breath.
6. Ethics and political science: The Ethics of Nicomacho, the Ethics of Eutimus, the Politics, the Political System of Athens, the Great Ethics, the Ethics of Eurasia, On Virtue and Evil, and Economics.
7. Aesthetic works: Rhetoric, Poetics, and Alexander's Rhetoric. [4]
theory
Aristotle divided science into:
Time cover: "Aristotle of Rembrandt"
Time cover: "Aristotle of Rembrandt"
1. Theoretical science (mathematics, natural science and the first philosophy later known as metaphysics);
2. The science of practice (ethics, politics, economics, strategy and modification);
3. The science of creation is poetics. [5]
Philosophy
Although Aristotle was a student of Plato, he abandoned the idealistic view held by his teacher. Plato believed that idea is the prototype of the real object, which does not depend on the real object but exists independently. Aristotle believed that the world was composed of things in harmony with their own forms and materials. "Material" is the material of things, and "form" is the individual characteristics of every thing. It is like a chicken with wings flying around. The "form" of this chicken is that it can bulge its wings, coo and lay eggs. When the chicken dies, the "form" will no longer exist, and the only thing left is the substance of the chicken.
Plato asserted that feeling could not be the source of real knowledge, but Aristotle believed that knowledge originated from feeling. These thoughts have included some materialistic factors. Like Plato, Aristotle believed that rational plans and ends are the guiding principles of all natural processes. However, Aristotle's view of causality is more abundant than Plato's, because he accepted some views of ancient Greece on this issue.
He pointed out that there are four main reasons. The first is the material factor, which is the main material that forms the object. The second is the form factor, that is, the design pattern and shape given by the main material. The third is the dynamic factor, that is, the mechanism and function provided for the realization of such design. The fourth is the purpose factor, which is the purpose of designing objects.
Aristotle himself is interested in the form and purpose of objects. He believes that the form factor is contained in all natural objects and functions. At first, these formal factors are hidden, but once objects or organisms have developed, these formal factors will be exposed. Finally, when the object or organism reaches the completion stage, its finished product is used to achieve the original design purpose, that is, to serve the purpose. He also believes that in concrete things, there is no form without material and no material without form. The combination process of material and form is the movement of transforming potential into reality. This theory shows spontaneous dialectics.
Aristotle's greatest contribution to philosophy lies in the creation of the important branch of formal logic. Logical thinking is the pillar of Aristotle's outstanding achievements in many fields. This mode of thinking runs through his research, statistics and thinking from beginning to end. In terms of research methods, he is used to holding a critical attitude towards the past and contemporary theories, putting forward and exploring theoretical blind spots, using deductive reasoning, and using syllogism to demonstrate. [3] [6-7]
Astronomy
Aristotle believed that the moving celestial body is the physical entity, and the earth is spherical, which is the center of the universe; The earth and celestial bodies are composed of different substances. The substances on the earth are composed of four elements, water, gas, fire and earth. The celestial bodies are composed of the fifth element, "ether".
Physics
Aristotle's thought on physics profoundly shaped the academic thought of the Middle Ages, and its influence extended to the Renaissance, although it was eventually replaced by Newtonian physics. [6-7]
Aristotle's works have dealt with mechanical problems. He already has the concept of force parallelogram in orthogonal case. He explained the lever theory and said that the force farther from the fulcrum is easier to move the heavy object because it draws a larger circle. He divided the movement of the weight at the end of the lever into tangential (he called it "natural") movement and normal ("unnatural") movement. Aristotle's view on falling motion is that "two objects of equal volume, the heavier ones fall faster". He even said that the speed of falling objects is precisely proportional to their weight. This erroneous view has a great impact on future generations. Later, the Frenchman N. Olsim and others gave correct opinions, but did not verify them. At the end of the 16th century, S. Stevens and Galileo not only explained in theory, but also confirmed Aristotle's mistake with experiments.
Aristotle also believed that "everything in motion must be pushed by a promoter", but one can not be traced back indefinitely, so "there must be the first promoter", that is, there is supernatural power. The motion here refers to the motion in general sense, including mechanical motion.
Aristotle's discussion on the falling motion can be found in De Caelo. In another book, Physics (with Chinese translation, published by the Commercial Press in 1982), he has repeatedly applied his falling law. This is a book about natural philosophy, mainly discussing sports. [8]
Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle believed that the earth world was composed of earth, water, air and fire. Each element represents the combination of two of the four basic characteristics (dry, wet, cold and hot). Soil=dry+cold; Water=wet+cold; Gas=wet+hot; Fire=dry+hot.
Aristotle believed that white is a kind of pure light, and the light that we usually see is the light that changes for some reason, which is not pure. This conclusion was firmly believed until the 17th century. In order to verify this view, Newton put a prism under the sun, and the sun passes through the prism to form red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, The light band composed of seven purple colors shines on the light screen, and Newton reached a conclusion that is completely contrary to the original view that people have always believed to be correct: white light is composed of the seven colors of light, and the seven colors of light are pure.

biology
In animal science, some of his opinions were believed to be accurate only in the 19th century. He classified more than 500 different plants and animals, dissected at least more than 50 animals, pointed out that whales are viviparous, and also investigated the development process of chick embryos.
He was the first person to classify biology, and wrote special works for it (such as animal classification, animal breeding, etc.). He first discovered the inspiration of comparative law and was rightly honored as the founder of comparative law. He is also the first person to describe the life history of many kinds of animals in detail. He wrote his first book on reproductive biology and life history. He paid special attention to the phenomenon of biodiversity and the significance of the differences between animals and plants.
Head of Aristotle (in the Louvre)
Head of Aristotle (in the Louvre)
Although he did not propose a formal classification, he classified animals according to certain standards, and his classification of invertebrates was more reasonable than Linnaeus's classification two thousand years later. In physiology, he mostly adopts the traditional view and is not outstanding. Compared with his predecessors, he is a firm empiricist. His reasoning is always rooted in his past observations. In his article "De generatione animarium 760b28", he clearly stated that the information (knowledge) obtained from the senses is the first, which is more than the information provided by rational thinking. In this respect, he is completely different from the Aristotle school of scholastic philosophers, who believe that all problems can be deduced by inference alone.
Aristotle's distinctive feature is to investigate the reasons. He is not satisfied with only asking the question of "how", but also asking the question of "why", which was very remarkable at that time. Why does an organism develop from a fertilized egg to a complete adult? Why are there so many purpose-oriented activities and behaviors in the biological world? He clearly understood that the raw materials that only constitute the body do not have the ability to develop into complex organisms. There must be something extra, he called it eidos. Unlike the definition given by Plato, Aristotle's eidos is the principle of procedural purpose. In his thought, the meaning of the word is exactly the same as that expressed by modern biologists' genetic program.
Contrary to Plato, Aristotle believed that natural things act according to their own nature, and all natural phenomena are the manifestation of action processes or processes. Since any process has a purpose, he believes that the study of purpose is the main component of the study of nature. Therefore, for Aristotle, all structures and biological activities have their biological significance, or as we said, have their adaptive significance. One of Aristotle's main purposes is to explain these meanings. Aristotle's "why" question has an important enlightenment in the history of biology. "Why?" is the most important question raised by evolutionary biologists in their research.
Aristotle firmly believes that the world is basically perfect, thus excluding the view of evolution. His advanced ideas have only been fully affirmed in recent decades. There are several reasons why he has become notorious in the past few centuries. One reason is that the Thomas believed him to be their authoritative philosopher. Later, when the reputation of scholasticism was destroyed, Aristotle was involved. Another more important reason is that during the scientific revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries, almost all the focus was on physical science. [2]
logic
His academic field also includes early research on formal logic theory, which was eventually incorporated into modern formal logic theory in the 19th century. Aristotle believed that analysis or logic was the tool of all sciences. He is the founder of formal logic
Connect the form of thinking with existence, and clarify the category of logic according to objective reality. Aristotle applied his findings to scientific theory. As an example, he chose mathematics, especially geometry, because at that time, geometry had transited from the early experimental stage where Thales wanted to give a reasonable explanation of the empirical rules of land survey to the later stage with a relatively complete deductive form.
Chinese Metaphysics cover
Chinese Metaphysics cover
However, the syllogism of logic is really of no use to experimental science. Because the goal of experimental science is to find, not to get formal proof from recognized premise. Starting from the premise that elements can no longer be divided into simpler objects, it was impossible to put forward a correct list of known elements in 1890, but by 1920, all radioactive elements would be excluded by applying this premise again. Since the premise has changed, the meaning of the word "element" has also changed. However, this fact does not prove that syllogism is useless, nor can it be concluded that modern physics is wrong.
In terms of metaphysics, Aristotle's philosophy and theology have had a profound impact on the traditions of Islam and Judaism. In the Middle Ages, it continued to influence Christian theology, especially the academic tradition of the Catholic Church. [6-7]
Under the authority of Aristotle, the scientific circles in Greece and the Middle Ages used the deductive method to say that many wrong authorities were absolutely correct, and made many wrong inferences with deceptive logical forms. [9]
education
Aristotle believed that rational development was the ultimate goal of education and advocated that the state should carry out public education for the children of slave owners. So that their body, virtue and wisdom can develop harmoniously. In terms of teaching methods, Aristotle attached importance to the role of practice and practice. For example, in music teaching, he often arranges children to play on the stage, experience on the spot, and improve their skills. In the relationship between teachers and students, Aristotle is not blindly obedient to his teacher, but is brave to think, adhere to the truth and challenge on the basis of inheritance. His character of "I love my teacher, I love truth in particular" inspired him to push the teaching theory established by Plato to a higher level.
Aristotle's teaching thought is based on his theory of human nature, epistemology and his investigation of children's physical and mental development. He divided human soul into two parts, one is irrational soul, whose function is instinct, feeling, desire, etc., and the other is rational soul, whose function is thinking, understanding, understanding, etc. He believed that in the process of human understanding, the main function of the soul is to feel and think. The soul perceives the external things with the help of the sense organs, and the sensed things are not transferred by human will, thus recognizing the position and role of sense in the process of cognition. However, he also believed that feeling only played an inducing role here, and that truth and knowledge could only be obtained through rational thinking. Therefore, Aristotle's teaching purpose is to develop the rationality of the higher part of the soul.
Although his ethics had profound influence from beginning to end, it also gained new life with the arrival of the emerging modern virtue ethics. [6-7]
Aristotle set up an "encyclopedia" curriculum for his philosophy school. He advocated that students should develop comprehensively in moral, intellectual, physical and aesthetic aspects, with different emphasis in different periods. In early childhood, physical development (sports) is the main; In adolescence, music education is the core and morality, intelligence and beauty are the main contents; Senior students should learn grammar, rhetoric, poetry, literature, philosophy, ethics, political science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and other disciplines. However, the focus should be on developing students' intelligence. He particularly emphasized the role of music in cultivating children's general accomplishment. It is believed that music has three functions: entertainment, edifying temperament, and cultivating rationality. It can help people overcome fatigue, refine their minds, shape their character, and excite their minds, and then enter a rational and noble moral realm through meditation. In physical education, he disagreed that teachers should only let students carry out harsh and even painful training, and should teach "simple gymnastics" and "light martial arts", focusing on the normal development of children's body. [10]
Politics
Like Plato, he believed that the city-state was higher than the citizens, but he also advocated that people have their own rights and demanded the balance of the interests of the city-state and citizens. He also established the principle of balanced justice of fair justice and exchange justice. On the one hand, people of different origins, properties, status and abilities should be treated equally. On the other hand, special preferential treatment can also be given to special tasks. For this reason, he highly respected the combination of democracy and monarchy, and practiced democracy in legislation and monarchy in administration. He hoped to safeguard the interests of citizens while safeguarding the overall interests of the city-state, and put forward the theory of decentralization. [6-7]
Politics is the most important political treatise of Aristotle, an ancient Greek thinker. [11]
other
He was also a master of typology, and divided the city-states into six categories according to the number of rulers and whether to safeguard the interests of all citizens. It also demonstrates that the evolution of various whole systems is gradually deteriorating, and the reason is that the comprehensive principle of justice is destroyed. [5]
Aristotle is the ancestor of realism. Unlike Plato, his teacher, who measured the reality with his hypothetical ideal country, he advocated starting from the real country, preventing the country from degeneration and promoting the development of the country. He is skeptical of human nature and rationality and advocates the rule of law. The source of law is not human rationality or scholars' thinking, but what people follow and recognize in history and tradition, that is, historical rationality. He has a very cautious attitude towards reform and reform, and it is not advisable to reform unless it is absolutely necessary.

As an encyclopedic scientist, Aristotle made great contributions to the world. He is also a true philosopher, and he has made contributions to almost every discipline of philosophy.
Aristotle's class map depicted by Arabs
Aristotle's class map depicted by Arabs
In philosophy, Aristotle's thought had a profound impact on the fundamental tendency and content of western culture. In ancient and medieval times, his works were translated into Latin, Syrian, Arabic, Italian, Hebrew, German and English. Later Greek scholars studied and respected his works, and so did Byzantine scholars. His thought is the backbone of Christian thought and Islamic scholasticism in the Middle Ages. Aviroy, the most important thinker in the Islamic world, integrated the traditional theories of Islam and Aristotle's rationalism into his own ideological system. Memonides, the most influential Jewish thinker, used rationalism to explain Jewish doctrine and made great achievements in reconciling science, philosophy and religion.
Aristotle showed a turning point in Greek science. Before him, scientists and philosophers have tried to put forward a complete world system to explain natural phenomena. He was the last person to propose a complete world system. After him, many scientists gave up trying to put forward a complete system and turned to studying specific problems.
With the continuous discovery of Aristotle's works, a new era of Aristotelism emerged in the Middle Ages, which scholars used as the basis for obtaining true knowledge in all aspects.