Aristotle (384-322 BC) was an ancient philosopher, Greek, and one of the great philosophers, scientists, and educators in ancient world history. He can be regarded as the culmination of Greek philosophy. He is a student of Plato and a teacher of Alexander.
In 335 BC, he established a school in Athens called Lycaen, known as the School of Leisure. Marx once referred to Aristotle as the most knowledgeable figure among ancient Greek philosophers, while Engels referred to him as "the ancient Hegel.".
As an encyclopedia like scientist, he has made contributions to almost every discipline. His writing involves ethics, metaphysics, psychology, economics, theology, political science, rhetoric, natural sciences, education, poetry, customs, and Athenian law. Aristotle's works constructed the first broad system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.

In 384 BC, Aristotle was born in Stakira, Thrace. This city is a Greek colony adjacent to the emerging Macedonia. His father was a court physician of King Philip II of Macedonia, and from his family background, he belonged to the middle class of slave owners. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study at the Platonic Academy for 20 years, and only left after Plato's death. Perhaps influenced by his father, Aristotle showed great interest in biology and empirical science; Under the influence of Plato, he developed an interest in philosophical reasoning.
He moved to Athens in 367 BC and studied medicine. He also studied at the Platonic Academy in Athens for many years. In 366 BC, Aristotle was sent to study at the Platonic Academy in Athens, and he lived there for 20 years until his teacher Plato passed away. [1]
From the age of 18 to 38- the twenty years of studying philosophy with Plato in Athens, this period of study and life had a decisive impact on his life. Socrates was Plato's teacher, and Aristotle was also taught by Plato. In the Platonic Academy in Athens, Aristotle performed excellently, and Plato referred to him as the "spirit of the academy.". But Aristotle is not someone who only worships authority and is docile in academia without his own ideas. He is different from the teacher who talks about metaphysics. He works hard to collect various books and materials, studies diligently, and even establishes a library for himself.
In 347 BC, Plato passed away and Aristotle stayed in Athens for another two years. Due to the new head of the school's strong support for the mathematical tendencies in Plato's philosophy, Aristotle could not bear it and left Athens. Afterwards, he began to travel various places.

After leaving the academy, Aristotle first accepted an invitation from his former classmate Hermias to visit Asia Minor. Hermias was the ruler of Mesopotamia along the coast of Asia Minor at that time. Aristotle also married the niece of Hermias there. But in 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle had to leave Asia Minor and go to Mithrine with his family.
In 343 BC, Aristotle was summoned back to his hometown by King Philip II of Macedonia and was hired by King Philip II to serve as a teacher to Alexander the Great, who was only 13 years old at the time. At that time, Aristotle was forty-two years old. According to the famous Greek biographer Plutarch, Aristotle imparted moral, political, and philosophical education to this future world leader. At the same time, Aristotle also exerted his influence and played an important role in the formation of Alexander the Great's ideas. It was under the influence of Aristotle that Alexander the Great always showed great concern for the scientific cause and great respect for knowledge.
In 335 BC, after the death of Philip II, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school there. The name of the school (Lyceum) is named after the wolf slayer (Lyceus) near the Temple of Apollo. During this period, Aristotle gave lectures and wrote multiple philosophical works. Aristotle had a habit of strolling through corridors and gardens while giving lectures, which is why the philosophy of the academy is known as the "philosophy of carefree" or "philosophy of strolling". Aristotle also wrote many works during this period, mainly about natural sciences and philosophy in the fields of science and physics, and the language used was much more obscure than Plato's Dialogues. Many of his works are based on lecture notes, and some even include his students' classroom notes. Therefore, some people regard Aristotle as the first textbook author in the West.

After Alexander's death, the Athenians began to rise up against Macedonian rule. Due to his relationship with Alexander, Aristotle had to flee to Galaxis for refuge on charges of disrespect towards the gods. His school was handed over to Theophrastus for management. [2]
In this turbulent era, Aristotle returned to Athens and stayed there for twenty years, from the year before Alexander's expedition to the year of Alexander's death.
Aristotle's arrival in Athens may have shouldered the political mission of convincing the Athenians to obey Macedonia. Aristotle received a lot of preferential treatment in Athens. In addition to his prominent political position, he also received a large amount of financial, material, and land support from Alexander and various levels of Macedonian bureaucrats. The Lucien Academy he founded occupies a vast sports field and garden area near the Temple of Apollolucien. He established his own school here, and the teachers and students of this school were accustomed to taking walks and discussing problems in the garden, hence the name "Xiaoyao School". When the news of Alexander's death spread to Athens, a frenzy of anti Macedonian sentiment immediately erupted. The Athenians attacked Aristotle and sentenced him to impiety, for which Socrates was sentenced to death. But Aristotle eventually escaped from Athens.
In 322 BC, Aristotle passed away due to a serious illness at the age of 63. The cause of death may be a disease accumulated over many years. There are also speculations that he was poisoned to death or jumped into the sea to commit suicide due to the inability to explain tidal phenomena.

work
1. Logic: The six logical works mentioned above, including "Category", "Explanation", "Pre Analysis", "Post Analysis", "Thesis", and "Argumentation", are collectively referred to as "Instrumental Theory".
2. Metaphysics: Metaphysics.
3. Natural philosophy: Physics, Meteorology, On Heaven, On Birth and Death.
4. On Animals: Zoology, Animal Construction, Animal Movement, Animal Movement, Animal Reproduction, Nicomark Ethics, 158 City-state System.
5. On People: "On the Soul", "On Sensation and Being Sensed", "On Memory", "On Sleep", "On Dreams", "On Preonitions in Sleep", "On the Length of Life", "On Youth, Old Age and Death", "On Breath", "On Breath".
6. Ethics and Political Science: "The Ethics of Nicomachus", "The Ethics of Eudemos", "Political Science", "The Athenian Politics", "The Great Ethics", "The Ethics of Eurasia", "On Virtue and Evil", and "Economics".
7. Aesthetic works: Rhetoric, Poetics, Alexandrian Rhetoric.

theory
Aristotle divided science into:
1. The science of theory (mathematics, natural sciences, and later known as the first philosophy of metaphysics);
2. The science of practice (ethics, political science, economics, strategy, and modification);
3. The science of creation, namely poetics. [5]
philosophy
Although Aristotle was a student of Plato, he abandoned the idealistic views held by his teachers. Plato believed that ideas are the prototype of physical objects, and they exist independently without relying on physical objects. Aristotle believed that the world is composed of things that are harmonious and consistent in their various forms and materials. "Material" is the material that makes up things, while "form" is the individual characteristic of each thing. It's like a chicken with bulging wings flying around, and its form is that it can bulge its wings, coo, lay eggs, and so on. When the chicken dies, the "form" no longer exists, and the only thing left is the substance of the chicken.
Plato asserts that sensation cannot be the source of true knowledge, while Aristotle believes that knowledge originates from sensation. These ideas already contain some materialistic factors. Aristotle, like Plato, believed that rational plans and purposes are the guiding principles of all natural processes. But Aristotle's view on causality is more diverse than Plato's, as he accepted some views from ancient Greece on this issue.

He pointed out that there are four main causes, the first being the material cause, which is the main substance that forms an object. The second type is form factor, which refers to the design patterns and shapes assigned to the main substances. The third type is the dynamic factor, which is the mechanism and function provided to achieve such design. The fourth type is the purpose factor, which is the purpose that the design object aims to achieve.
Aristotle himself valued the formal and purposive causes of objects, believing that the formal cause is contained within all natural objects and actions. At first, these formal factors are latent, but once an object or organism develops, these formal factors become apparent. Finally, when an object or organism reaches the completion stage, its finished product is used to achieve its original design purpose, that is, to serve the purpose. He also believes that in concrete things, there is no form without material, nor is there any form without material. The process of combining material and form is the movement of transforming potential into reality. This theory embodies spontaneous dialectical thinking.
Aristotle's greatest contribution in philosophy lies in the establishment of the important branch of formal logic. Logical thinking is the pillar of Aristotle's outstanding achievements in many fields, and this way of thinking runs through his research, statistics, and thinking from beginning to end. He is accustomed to holding a critical attitude towards past and contemporary theories in his research methods, proposing and exploring theoretical blind spots, using deductive reasoning, and using syllogism to argue. [3] [6-7]
astronomy
Aristotle believed that the celestial body in motion is a physical entity of matter, and that the Earth is spherical, serving as the center of the universe; The Earth and celestial bodies are composed of different substances. The substances on Earth are composed of four elements: water, gas, fire, and earth, while celestial bodies are composed of the fifth element, the ether.
physical
Aristotle's ideas on physics profoundly shaped the academic thinking of the Middle Ages, and their influence extended to the Renaissance period, although ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics.

Aristotle's works have discussed mechanical problems. He already has the concept of parallelograms of forces under orthogonal conditions. He explained the lever theory that a force farther from the fulcrum is more likely to move a heavy object because it draws a larger circle. He decomposed the motion of the heavy object at the end of the lever into tangential (what he called "natural") motion and normal ("unnatural") motion. Aristotle's view on falling motion is that "two objects of equal volume, the heavier one, fall faster." He even said that the speed of object fall is precisely proportional to their weight. This erroneous viewpoint has a significant impact on future generations. Later, French people such as N. Orsim provided correct insights, but they did not verify them. At the end of the 16th century, S. Steven and Galileo not only theoretically explained but also experimentally confirmed Aristotle's mistake.
Aristotle also believed that "everything in motion must have a promoter pushing it forward," but one promoter cannot be infinitely traced back, so "there must be a first promoter," that is, supernatural divine power. The motion here refers to general motion, including mechanical motion.
Aristotle's discourse on the motion of falling bodies can be found in De Caelo, and he has repeatedly applied his law of falling bodies in another work, Physics (with a Chinese translation, published by the Commercial Press in 1982). This is a work on natural philosophy, mainly discussing movement. [8]
Aristotle believed that the earthly world is composed of four major elements: soil, water, air, and fire. Each element represents a combination of two of the four basic characteristics (dry, wet, cold, and hot). Soil=dry+cold; Water=wet+cold; Qi=moisture+heat; Fire=dry+hot.
Aristotle believed that white is an extremely pure light, while the various colors we see in daily life are light that changes for some reason and is impure. This conclusion was firmly held by people until the 17th century. To verify this view, Newton placed a prism under sunlight, and the sunlight passed through the prism to form a light band consisting of seven colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and purple, shining on the screen. Newton obtained a completely opposite conclusion to the previously believed correct view: white light is composed of these seven colors of light, and these seven colors of light are pure.

In animal science, some of his opinions were only believed to be accurate in the 19th century. He classified over 500 different plant and animal species, conducted anatomical research on at least 50 species, pointed out that whales are viviparous, and also examined the development process of chick embryos.
He was the first person to categorize biology and wrote specialized works on it (such as animal classification, animal reproduction, etc.). He was the first to discover the inspirational significance of comparative law and was naturally honored as the founder of comparative law. He is also the first person to elaborate on the life history of many animal species. He wrote his first book on reproductive biology and life history. He pays special attention to the phenomenon of biodiversity and the significance of differences between animals and plants.
Although he did not propose a formal classification, he classified animals according to certain standards, and his classification of invertebrates was more reasonable than Linnaeus's classification two thousand years later. He mostly adopts traditional views in physiology and therefore is not outstanding. Compared to his predecessors, he is a steadfast empiricist. His reasoning is always rooted in his past observations. He explicitly stated in his article "De generatione animal 760b28" that information (knowledge) obtained from the senses is paramount, surpassing the information that rational thinking can provide. In this regard, he is completely different from the Aristotelian school of scholastic philosophers, who believe that all problems can be inferred solely by inference.
The notable feature of Aristotle is to investigate the cause. He is not satisfied with only asking the question of "what", but also asking the question of "why", which was very remarkable at that time. Why does an organism develop from a fertilized egg to a complete adult? Why are there so many purposeful activities and behaviors in the biological world? He clearly understands that the raw materials that make up the body alone do not have the ability to develop into complex organisms. There must be something extra present, which he calls eidos. Unlike the definition given by Plato, Aristotle's eidos is the principle of program purpose, and in his thinking, the meaning conveyed by this word is exactly the same as that expressed by modern biologists in genetic programs.

Contrary to Plato, Aristotle believed that natural things act according to their own properties, and all natural phenomena are manifestations of processes or processes. Since any process has a purpose, he believes that studying the purpose is a major component of studying nature. Therefore, for Aristotle, all structures and biological activities have their biological significance, or as we say, their adaptive significance. One of Aristotle's main purposes was to explain these meanings. Aristotle's "why" question has important implications in the history of biology. "Why?" is the most important question raised by evolutionary biologists in their research.
Aristotle firmly believed that the world was basically perfect and thus excluded the view of evolution, and his advanced ideas were only fully recognized in recent decades. There are several reasons why he has been infamous in the past few centuries. One reason is that Thomasists regarded him as their authoritative philosopher, and later when the reputation of scholastic philosophy was tarnished, Aristotle was implicated. Another more important reason is that during the scientific revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries, almost all the focus was on physical science. [2]
logic
His academic field also includes early research on formal logic theory, which was eventually merged into modern formal logic theory in the 19th century. Aristotle believed that analysis or logic is the tool of all sciences. He is the founder of formal logic and strives to
Connect the form of thinking with existence and clarify the category of logic according to objective reality. Aristotle applied his findings to scientific theories. As an example, he chose mathematics, especially geometry, because geometry had already transitioned from the early experimental stage where Thales wanted to provide a reasonable explanation of the empirical rules of land surveying to a later stage with a more complete deductive form.

However, the syllogism of logic is indeed of no use to experimental science. Because the goal pursued by experimental science is discovery, rather than obtaining formal proof from recognized premises. Starting from the premise that elements cannot be further divided into simpler objects, a correct list of known elements was proposed in 1890, but by 1920, applying this premise would exclude all radioactive elements. Since the premise has changed, the meaning of the word "element" has also changed. However, this fact does not prove that syllogism is useless, nor can it be assumed that modern physics is wrong.
In terms of metaphysics, Aristotle's philosophy and theological ideas had a profound impact on the traditions of Islam and Judaism. In the Middle Ages, it continued to influence Christian theology, especially the academic tradition of the Catholic Church. [6-7]
Under the authority of Aristotle, the scientific community in Greece and medieval times used deductive reasoning to claim that many erroneous authorities were absolutely correct, and made many erroneous inferences using deceptive logical forms. [9]
education
Aristotle believed that rational development is the ultimate goal of education and advocated that the state should provide public education for the children of slave owners. Enable their bodies, virtues, and wisdom to develop harmoniously. In terms of teaching methods, Aristotle values the role of practice and practice. In music teaching, he often arranges for children to perform on stage, experience live performances, become proficient in techniques, and improve their skills. In terms of teacher-student relationship, Aristotle did not blindly follow his mentor's advice and be obedient, but dared to think, adhere to the truth, and dare to challenge on the basis of inheritance. His character of "I love my teacher, especially the truth" inspired him to advance the teaching theory established by Plato to a higher level.

Aristotle's teaching philosophy is based on his theory of human nature, epistemology, and his examination of children's physical and mental development. He divided the human soul into two parts: the irrational soul, which functions as instinct, sensation, desire, etc., and the rational soul, which functions as thinking, understanding, cognition, etc. He believes that in the process of human cognition, the main function of the soul is to feel and think. The soul perceives external things through sensory organs, and what is perceived is not subject to human will, thus acknowledging the position and role of sensation in the process of cognition. However, he also believes that feelings only play a triggering role here, and that truth and knowledge can only be obtained through rational thinking. Therefore, Aristotle's teaching purpose is to develop the rationality of the higher part of the soul.
His ethics, although deeply influential from beginning to end, later gained new life with the arrival of emerging modern virtue ethics. [6-7]
Aristotle established an encyclopedia style curriculum for his philosophy school. He advocates for the comprehensive development of students in morality, intelligence, physical fitness, aesthetics, and other aspects, with different focuses in different periods. Physical development (sports) is the main focus in early childhood; During adolescence, music education is the core, with morality, intelligence, and beauty as the main content; Senior students need to study grammar, rhetoric, poetry, literature, philosophy, ethics, political science, as well as subjects such as arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, etc. However, the focus should always be on developing students' intelligence. He particularly emphasizes the role of music in cultivating children's general cultivation. It is believed that music has three functions: entertainment, character cultivation, and rational cultivation. It can help people relieve fatigue, refine their minds, shape their personalities, and stimulate their souls, thereby entering a rational and noble moral realm through contemplation. In physical education teaching, he disagrees with teachers only allowing students to undergo rigorous or even painful training, teaching "simple gymnastics" and "light martial arts", and emphasizing the normal development of children's bodies.

politics
Like Plato, he believed that city states were superior to citizens, but he also advocated that people have their own rights and demanded a balance between the interests of city states and citizens. He also established the principle of balanced justice between fair justice and exchange justice. On the one hand, people of different backgrounds, wealth, status, and abilities should be treated equally, and on the other hand, special privileges can also be given for special tasks. He highly values the combination of democracy and monarchy, implementing democracy in legislative issues and monarchy in administration. He hoped to ensure the various interests of citizens while maintaining the overall interests of the city-state, and proposed the theory of decentralization. [6-7]
Political Science is the most important political science treatise of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. [11]
other
He is also a master of typology, dividing city states into six categories based on the number of rulers and whether they uphold the interests of all citizens. And it also demonstrated the evolution of various whole systems, which gradually deteriorated due to the disruption of the comprehensive principles of justice. [5]
Aristotle is the founder of realism. Unlike his teacher Plato who measured reality based on his assumed ideal country, he advocated starting from the real country to prevent its corruption and promote its development. He holds a skeptical attitude towards human nature and rationality, advocating the rule of law, and the source of law is not human rationality or the thinking of scholars, but rather something that has been followed and recognized by people in history and tradition, that is, historical rationality. He holds a very cautious attitude towards reform and reform, and it is not advisable to reform unless it is absolutely necessary.

As an encyclopedia like scientist, Aristotle made significant contributions to the world. He is still a true philosopher and has made contributions to almost every discipline of philosophy.
In terms of philosophy, Aristotle's ideas have had a profound impact on the fundamental tendencies and content of Western culture. In ancient and medieval times, his works were translated into Latin, Syrian, Arabic, Italian, Hebrew, German, and English. In the future, Greek scholars studied and praised his works, and Byzantine scholars did the same. His ideas were the backbone of medieval Christian thought and Islamic scholastic philosophy. Aviro, the most important thinker in the Islamic world, integrated traditional Islamic theories with Aristotle's rationalism into his own ideological system. The most influential Jewish philosopher, Maimonid, used rationalism to explain Jewish doctrine and achieved significant success in reconciling science, philosophy, and religion.
Aristotle demonstrated a turning point in Greek science. Before him, scientists and philosophers sought to propose a complete world system to explain natural phenomena. He was the last person to propose a complete world system. After him, many scientists abandoned the attempt to propose a complete system and shifted to studying specific problems.
With the continuous discovery of Aristotle's works, a new era of studying Aristotelism emerged in the Middle Ages, which scholars used as the basis for obtaining true knowledge in various aspects.